REVISED
[ ATTM O T> T \ f T?"D
JUAI UN i RIMcK
UCSB LIBRARY
74.
THE REVISED
LATIN PRIMER
BT
BENJAMIN HALL KENNEDY, D.D.
FORMERLY FKLLOW OS ST. JOHN'S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE
REGIUS PROFESSOR OF GREEK
A.ND CANON Or ELY
TWELFTH IMPRESSION
LONGMANS, GKEEN, AND CO.
39 PATERNOSTEK ROW, LONDON
NEW YORK AND BOMBAY
1906
All rights reserved
By the same Author.
THE SHORTER LATIN PRIMER.
Fcp. 8vo. price ONE SHILLING.
AUTHOR'S PREFACE.
Tnis little boofc is published in compliance with a wish expressed to me by
a large number of Masters, including many teachers in Preparatory Schools,
and in the lower forms of Public Schools.
It is intended to be a simple manual for beginners in Latin, preparatory
to the use of the Revised Latin Primer.
In order to facilitate the passage of the learner from one book to the
other, and also to make it possible for them to be used side by side if
necessary, this Shorter Primer has been made, as far as it goes, in the main
identical with the Revised Primer, and arranged on the same plan.
It contains the memorial portion of the Accidence, with a few of the
most important notes and explanations, and the more elementary parts of
the Syntax of the Simple Sentence.
A short outline of the Compound Sentence, which did not form part of
my original plan, has been added in accordance with the desire of several
experienced teachers, In this part it has been necessary, for the sake of
brevity, to make the arrangement and wording somewhat different from
that of the Revised Primer,
In this book, as in the Revised Primer, I have endeavoured to simplify
the marking of quantity by placing the mark of quantity, as a rule, only on
the long vowels. It must therefore be noted that vowels not marked are
generally to be taken as short, short quantity being only marked wnere it
has seemed necessary to guard against mistake.
EXERCISES ON THE SHORTER LATIN PRIMER.
By M. G. and J. E. KENNEDY, and H. WILKINSON, M.A.
Crown 8vo. 1*. 6d.
LONGMANS, GREEN, & CO.
39 Paternoster Row, London, New York, and Bombay.
PEEFACE
THIS BOOK is a complete revision of the Public School
Latin Primer.
The report of the Public School Commission of 1862
having recommended the use of a common Latin Grammar
in Public Schools, the Head Masters of the Schools included
in that Commission resolved to adopt my Elementary
Latin Grammar, which had for some years been widely
used, as the basis of such a common Grammar, and the
Public School Latin Primer, prepared in accordance with
that resolution, was published with their sanction in the
year 1866.
During the period which has since elapsed, various
improvements have from time to time occurred to me or
been suggested by others. But, looking at the joint
authority under which the Primer was issued, I did not
feel myself free to introduce into it the alterations which
under other circumstances I should have made. When,,
however, I found that a revision of the Primer was generally
desired, and when, after communication with the Conference
of Head Masters, I found myself in a position to act in
the matter of revision upon my own responsibility, I gladly
entered upon the work of which the present Ee vised Primer
is the result. My first step was to collect as widely as
fv PREFACE
possible from Masters of Public and Private Schools
opinions with regard to the objections to the Primer as it
stood, and the nature and extent of the changes which
teachers of experience deemed to be desirable. With the
kind and generous aid of my old pupils and friends
Mr. Hallam, of Harrow, and Mr. Page, of Charterhouse, and
by the courtesy of many teachers who have communicated
with me either directly or through them, I have been enabled
to obtain a number of valuable suggestions on these points.
The aim which I have kept steadily in view in this
revision of the Primer has been that the book should be
suitable both for beginners and for all boys up to fhe Fifth
Form in Public Schools.
The greatest care has been taken to make the arrange-
ment in respect of form as clear and plain as possible. For
this purpose I have (1) brought into the text under the
appropriate headings the matter which in the original
Primer is contained in Appendix I. ; (2) omitted such tech-
nical terms as seemed to be reasonably open to objection.
The Declension of Substantives and Adjectives has been
arranged upon the ' Stem ' principle, and the words are
classed as far as possible in accordance with the latest
results of the comparative study of Latin and the related
languages, especially the ancient Italian dialects. The old
order of the Declensions has, after careful consideration,
been retained. In a text-book of this kind there is an
obvious advantage in keeping, wherever it is possible, a
popular and well-understood system, and I believe that the
old order of Declension is, from a purely philological point
of view, wholly unobjectionable. With regard to Verbs, I
PREFACE v
have adhered in the Paradigms to the arrangement of the
four Conjugations, as I am satisfied that an alteration
would involve such inconvenience to teacher and learner as
would far outweigh any possible gain in scientific accuracy.
To meet a general wish, I have prefixed to the Accidence
a chapter on Letters and Laws of Sound. I desire it to be
understood that this chapter is placed at the beginning of
the book because that seemed to me to be the most natural
and, for purposes of reference, the most convenient position
for it — and not from any intention that it should necessarily
be learnt as a whole at the outset.
I have purposely refrained from any attempt to give
fixed rules for the pronunciation of Latin, because in tha
present stage of the investigation of that subject, such rules
could be only of a provisional kind. For the results which
have so far been reached I would refer to the small pam-
phlet lately issued by the Cambridge Philological Society.
In order to simplify as far as possible the marking of
quantity, I have marked the quantity as a rule only on the
long vowels. In this book vowels which have no mark of
quantity are generally to be taken as short, and the short
quantity is marked only where it seems especially necessary
to guard against mistake.
The memorial lines on Gender are placed in an appendix
instead of being, as in the original Primer, included in the
text.
Throughout the book — except in a few cases in the chap-
ter on Letters and Laws of Sound, where Word-formation,
not Grammar or meaning, is being dealt with — Latin words
are immediately followed by their translation in English.
vi PREFACE
Some of these improvements of course involve additional
printed matter, but the addition is rather in the apparent
size of the book than in the actual matter to be learnt.
In conclusion I offer my cordial thanks to many teachers,.
Head Masters and Assistant Masters in Public Schools, and
also Masters of Private Schools (among whom I must
mention especially the Eev. E. D. Stone and Mr. C. S. Jerrarn)
for the assistance which they have directly and indirectly
rendered to me by communication and correspondence.
Of the special co-operation which has been given through-
out by Mr. Page and Mr. Hallam I have already spoken.
For many reasons their constant help has been to me
invaluable.
During the progress of the work I have received criticisms
on many points of philology and grammar from my friends
Dr. Peile, Master of Christ's College, and Professor J. E. B.
Mayor, which, last, but not least, I desire gratefully to
acknowledge.
B. IL KENNEDY.
THE ELMS, CAMBRIDGE :
May 1888.
PREFACE TO THE SEVENTH EDITION.
IN bringing out the present edition the Editors have taken
the opportunity to make some improvements in points of
detail which have been suggested to them by various
Teachers. They desire in particular to thank Mr. Frank
Kitchie for several criticisms and suggestions.
CONTENTS
1ECTIOS PAQ3
1. THE LATIN LANGUAGE . . . . . . . . .1
2. LETTERS AND LAWS OF SOUND . . . ... . . . 2
24. FLEXION 11
25. PABTS OF SPEECH 12
26. DECLENSION AND GENDER 13
32. DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES . 16
67. DECLENSION OF GREEK NOUNS 34
70. DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES ........ 37
76. COMPARISON ... ... ... 41
88. NUMERALS . . 45
91. PRONOUNS 48
102. TABLE OF CORRELATIVES . . 54
103. VERBS 56
115. VERB PARADIGMS 62
134. IRREGULAR VERBS .... ^ .... 85
142. DEFECTIVE VERBS 90
143. IMPERSONAL VERBS 92
147. FORMATION OF VERB STEMS 93
152. TABLE OF VERB PERFECTS AND SUPINES 98
163. ADVERBS 107
171. PREPOSITIONS 109
176. CONJUNCTIONS 110
180. INTERJECTIONS Ill
. SYNTAX.
181. INTRODUCTION TO THE SIMPLE SENTENCE . . . . . 113
192. AGREEMENT 116
200. CASES —
201. THE NOMINATIVE AND VOCATIVE CASES . . . . . 119
203. THE ACCUSATIVE CASE 119
214. THE DATIVE CASE 123
228. THE ABLATIVE CASE 127
247- THE GENITIVE CASE .133
viii CONTENTS
SECTION PAGB
268. PLACE, TIME, AND SPACE 140
284. PREPOSITIONS 143
288. IMPERSONAL VERBS (CASE CONSTRUCTION) 146
296. PASSIVE CONSTRUCTION 147
304. ADJECTIVES 149
315. PRONOUNS 151
336. TENSES 157
344. MOODS 159
364. THE VERB INFINITE —
365. THE INFINITIVE 162
374. GERUND AND GERUNDIVE 164
385. SUPINES 166
389. PARTICIPLES . 167
395. ADVERBS 168
399. CONJUNCTIONS 170
404. INTERJECTIONS 171
405. QUESTION AND ANSWEB 172
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE —
410. INTRODUCTION > 174
411. SEQUENCE OF TENSES 175
413. SUBSTANTIVAL CLAUSES 176
421. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 180
450. ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES 192
458. OBATIO OBLIQUA 194
470. NARRATIVE IN ORATIO OBLIQUA ...... 198
471. PROSODY 201
APPENDIX I. — DERIVED AND COMPOUNDED WORDS . . . . 209
APPENDIX II. — ROMAN MONEY, WEIGHTS, MEASURES, AND TIME . 214
APPENDIX III.— FIGURES OF SPEECH 218
APPENDIX IV. -MEMORIAL LINES ON GENDER . . . .221
INDEX I. : SUBJECTS 227
INDEX II. : LATIN WORDS ...... . 233
LATIN PEIMEE.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
LATIN was the dialect of the Latini, or people of Latium in Italy.
It was spoken by the ancient Eomans, and, as their poets and
prose-writers all used this dialect, the language was called Latin,
not Koman.
Latin belongs to the family of languages known as Indo-
European, or Aryan ; the other languages of this family are, in
Asia, the Indian, which includes Sanskrit, and the Iranian ; in
Europe, the Keltic, the Teutonic, the Greek, the Slavonic, and
the Lettic. The imperial power of Kome made Latin the general
speech of Western Europe, and from it are derived the modern
Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, and Wallachian, hence
called Komance languages.
Note. — In England, after its conquest by the Angles and Saxons,
a branch of the Teutonic language, called Anglo-Saxon, or old
English, was spoken. From about the tenth century, and especially
after the Norman Conquest (1066 A.D.), this became mixed with
Norman French, a Bomance dialect, an offshoot of Latin. Aiter the
revival of learning in the sixteenth century, a large number of words
were brought into English direct from Latin, and more have been
added since, so that to understand the English language thoroughly
it is necessary to have a knowledge of Latin.
The influence of Greek civilisation on Latin was very great ;
it was chiefly exerted at two distinct eras. The first of these
began about 550 B.C., through the commerce of the Romans
with the Greek colonies in Southern Italy. The second may be
THE LATIN LANGUAGE
dated from the third century B.C., when literary activity began at
Rome. This influence was further developed through the con-
quest of Greece by Eome, whicfi was completed 146 B.C.
All Latin literature, except the satiric writings of Horace,
Persius, and Juvenal, is formed on Greek models. The earliest
specimens of Latin we possess are inscriptions, laws, annals, and
fragments of songs.
The credit of authorship is first ascribed to Livius Andro-
nicus, who is said to have exhibited plays at Rome 240 B.C. The
works of the poets who followed soon after this date have mostly
perished, except the comedies of Plautus and Terence, about
200 to 140 B.C., and a prose fragment of the elder Cato.
The ages regarded as classical may be said to begin about
80 B.C., lasting about 200 years.
The so-called Golden Age ended with the death of Augustus,
A.D. 14, when the Silver Age began, ending about 120 A.D.
The authors most studied are — in prose, Cicero, Caesar, Livy,
Tacitus ; in poetry, Lucretius, Vergil, Horace, Ovid, and Juvenal.
LETTERS AND LAWS OF SOUND.
2 The Latin Alphabet. — The Latin Alphabet contains twenty-
three letters, with the following signs : —
ABCDEFGHI(J)KLMNOPQRSTU(V)XYZ
abode fghi(j)klmnopqr stu(v)xyz
Note. — In early times C was written to represent the sounds of both
C and G, which were probably not clearly distinguished in speaking.
Afterwards G was made out of C, and K becoming superfluous went
out of use. Y and Z were added in Cicero's time, being borrowed
direct from the Greek alphabet, but they are only found in words
taken from the Greek.
The letters are divided into :
1. Vowels or Sonants (sounding by themselves) ;
2. Consonants (sounding with a vowel).
LAWS OF SOUND
VOWELS.
3 The pure vowels are a, e, o ; i and u are classed as vowels
and also as semi-consonants, because they have both vowel and
consonant sound.
The most open sound is a ; the closest sharp sound is i ; and
the closest flat sound is u ; e is intermediate between a and i,
and o is intermediate between a and u.
a
e o
i u
y is always a vowel, as in lyra, and was sounded as French ?A
4 Quantity of Vowels. — Each of the five vowels can be either
short or long : short when pronounced quickly, like English a
in man', long when the voice dwells on the sound, as in far.
A short vowel is distinguished by the sign ~, a long one by
the sign - : amo. Thus the five vowels stand for ten different
sounds :
a, a, e, e, I, i, o, o, u, u.
There were no doubt many finer shades of sound for each
vowel, which cannot be exactly ascertained, but the following
five words may give an approximate idea of their pronunciation.
quinine, demesne, papa, prSpose, Zulu.
Note.— A. vowel before two consonants is said to be long ' by
position.' A vowel before another vowel, or before h followed by a
vowel, is nearly always short.
5 Diphthongs. — A Diphthong (double sound) is formed by two
vowels meeting in one syllable. The diphthongs commonly
found in Latin are ae, oe, au ; more rarely eu : Caesar, moenia,
laus, heu.
In the oldest Latin there were six diphthongs : ai, au, ei,
eu, oi, ou. Of these, ai passes in classical Latin into ae,
v 2
LAWS OF SOUND
mensae for mensai ; au remains unchanged ; ei is found in
old inscriptions, but in the literary language its place is taken
by e or by I, as in dico, except in the exclamation ei ; eu is
found in ceu, heu, neu, seu, and in many words of Greek
origin ; oi passes into oe, and sometimes into later u : poena,
punio; ou becomes u, as in duco.
The diphthongs are always long.
CONSONANTS.
6 I. MUTES (closed sounds), formed by complete closure of
the mouth passage ; the sound being the explosion
heard when the stoppage is removed. They are :
(i.) Gutturals (throat sounds)
(ii.) Dentals (teeth sounds)
(iii.) Labials (lip sounds)
II. SPIRANTS (open sounds), formed by the friction of the
breath in the mouth passage when partially closed :
(i.) The Palatal Spirant, j (sounded as y).
(ii.) The Dental Spirant or Sibilant, s.
(iii.) The Labio-Dental Spirant, f.
(iv.) The Labial Spirant, v (sounded as w"
(v.) The Spirant, h.
IH. SEMI-CONSONANTS :
(i.) Consonant i (written j), consonant u (written v).
(ii.) Nasals, n, m.
(iii.) Liquids, 1, r.
z is really a double letter, standing for cs, gs.
y, z and the three Greek aspirates, ch, ph, th, are only found
in Greek words, as zona, chlamys, phalanx, theatrum.
Note. — The spirants j and v, though distinct in the parent language,
cannot be separated in Latin from consonant i and u.
LAWS OF SOUND
5
7 Pronunciation of Consonants. — The guttural mutes, c, g,
are sounded before all vowels, as in English, can, go ; never as
in cease, gem ; k is only found in a few words, and is sounded
as in English : kalendae.
The dental mutes, t, d, are sounded nearly as in English, but
t must never be pronounced as sh ; natio is not like English
nation (nashun).
The labial mutes, p, b, as in English.
s always hard, as in English sing, but in the oldest Latin,
s between two vowels was soft as in rise. This soft s or z after-
wards became r, as in arbores for arboses.
Consonant i and u have the sound of y, w, in ye, we.
h is a strong breathing at the beginning of a word, but between
two vowels very faintly sounded.
1 as in English ; r more strongly trilled than English r.
n and m as in English ; the guttural nasal ng, though written
n, was sounded like ng in sing or w in sink : inquam was
sounded ing-quam.
Table of Consonants.
'
Mutes.
Spirants.
Semi-Consonants.
Hard
(tenues).
Soft
(mediae).
Hard
(tenues).
Soft
(mediae).
Nasal.
Liquid.
Guttural
c, (k), qu
g
h
ng
Palatal
j(y)
Lingual
r,l
Dental
t
d
S
n
Labio- dental
f
Labial
P
b
v (w) | m
LAWS OF SOUND
8 Syllables. — A syllable consists of one or more letters which
can be sounded with a single accent or tone of the voice : !-lex.
When a consonant comes between two vowels, it belongs to
the same syllable as the vowel which follows it : pa-ter.
When two or more consonants come between two vowels,
they belong to the vowel which follows them if they are letters
which can come together at the beginning of a word : pa-tres,
a-stra. In an-nus one n belongs to each syllable, because double
n cannot begin a word. So men-sa, vic-trix.
A syllable ending in a vowel is an open syllable.
A syllable ending in a consonant is a closed syllable.
A syllable is long or short according as its vowel is long or
short, either by nature or position.
Note. — The last syllable of a word is called ultimate ; the last
but one penultimate ; the last but two ante -penultimate.
9 Accent. — The accent or tone falls on some one syllable in
every word. The accented syllable was pronounced with greater
force and also in a higher key than the other syllables. In
Latin the rule is to throw the accent back ; therefore in words
of two or more syllables, the last syllable is never accented.
In words of more than two syllables the accent always falls
on the last but one (penultimate), if it is long.
If the penultimate is short, the accent falls on the last but
two (ante-penultimate).
The accents are not usually printed in Latin.
10 VOWEL CHANGE.
I. Change in Accented Syllables.
1 . Original e may become i: simul (cf . semel) , venia (cf . vindex) .
2. e becomes 0 before 1 : soluo (se-luo) ; or in connexion
with u : nouos (for neuos), douco (later duco).
8. i becomes e before r : sero (for siso).
4. o sometimes becomes n : hue (for ho-ce).
LA WS OF SOUND
11 II. Change in Unaccented Syllables.
(A) In final syllables :
1. o becomes u: corpus (stem corpos-).
2. i becomes e : mare (stem mari-), or is lost altogether :
animal (for animale, stem animali-).
(B) In medial syllables the vowel is commonly affected by the
next consonant :
1. e appears before r : cineres (cinis), caperis (capio).
2. u appears before 1 or a labial : as in cultus (colo).
epistula (earlier epistola). But when i or e precedes,
the vowel remains o : as filiolus, alveolus.
3. i appears before any other single consonant : as in
meritus, monitus (moneo). (For exception see 13.)
12 (C) In Compounds :
Here the principle is the same, and generally the rules are
the same as in (B), but the examples are much more numerous.
a to e in closed syllables and before r : consecro from sacer ;
descendo from scando ; tradere from dare,
a to i in most open syllables and before ng : difficilis from
facilis ; attingo from tango,
a to u or i before labials : occupo and accipio from capio ;
and before 1 : insulto, insilio, from salto, salio.
e to i often in open syllables, but never before r : diligo from
lego ; but fero, aufero.
ae to I : collide from laedo.
an to u or 6 : include from claudo ; explodo from plaudo.
o and u are generally unchanged in compounds.
Note. — There is a vowel variation often seen in Latin flexion
which is not due to change in the Latin language itself, but came
down to it from the Indo-European language. Thus the same noun
can have two or more Stems, as homo ; older stem homon-, later
weak stem, homtn- ; agmen-, agmin- ; pater, patr- ; genus-
(orig. genos), gener-.
In these words the vowel of the strong stem is preserved in the
Nom. Sing., while the weak stem appears in the other cases.
8 LAWS OF SOUND
"13 Vowel Assimilation and Dissimilation. — The vowels of two
following syllables tend to become alike in sound : vegeo, vegetus
(vigeo), pupugi (for pepugi), nihil (for ne-hil), mihi, tibi.
On the other hand, two vowels coming together are sometimes
dissimilated : ii becomes ie in pietas, societas, abietis.
14 Vowel Contraction. — When two similar vowels are separated
by consonant i or u, or byh, they commonly throw out the letter
between them, and unite in a long vowel : res is contracted from
re-i-es, nemo from ne-h-emo, nil from ni-h-il, audisse from au-
divisse.
Two dissimilar vowels sometimes unite in the same manner :
amare from ama-i-ere ; amo from ama-i-o ; amasti from ama-v-isti.
Two vowels placed next each other often contract : dego from
de-ago ; nullus from ne-ullus ; promo from pro-emo.
15 Syncope. — Dropping of an unaccented vowel between two
consonants : dextra for dextera ; valde for valide. It often takes
place in compounds : calfacio for calefacio. The vowel of the
reduplicating syllable sometimes drops ; reppuli for repepuli.
Note. — Sometimes when any one of the letters 1, r, m, or n follows
a consonant, a vowel not found in the stem springs up before it be-
cause of the semi-vocalic character of the sound ; ager, stem agro- ;
populus, original stem poplo- ; asinus (asno-) ; voJumus (contrast
vul-tis).
16 Apocope. — Dropping of a final vowel : e is dropped in hie for
hi-ce ; quin for qui-ne ; die for dice ; i falls off in ut for uti,
quot, tot (totidem).
17 Changes of Quantity. — A vowel generally shortens before
another vowel : thus rei became r8i. A long vowel often becomes
short through effect of the accent on the preceding or following
syllable : juro becomes perjuro, afterwards weakening to pejgro ;
lucerna from luceo. In flexional endings, a vowel originally
final is sometimes shortened. But when a final consonant is
lost (as final d in the ablative), the length of the vowel seems
to be preserved : Gnaeo (earlier Gnaivod).
Vowel lengthening is often due to Compensation. When
two consonants follow an accented vowel the first of the two is
often dropped, and the vowel lengthened, so that the syllable
keeps its length : hoc for hod-ce ; nidus for nisdus (English nest}.
LAWS OF SOUND
CONSONANT CHANGE.
18 Consonants at the beginning of a word. — Two mute
consonants at the beginning of a word were avoided. Thus we
find locus for original stlocus, tilia for ptilia. Sometimes a
spirant preceding a mute is dropped : caveo for scaveo, but
generally it is retained : scando, sterno, spero. A mute followed
by a liquid is generally unchanged : as cresco, tres, plaudo ;
but g before n is lost in notus for gnotus (cf. ignotus), and in
nodus, knot. Two spirants remain : flos, frons ; but sn> becomes
m, as in minis, memor ; sn becomes n in nix (snow), r drus (Old
English snoru), daughter-in-law ; sv sometimes remains : suadeo ;
sometimes v is lost : salum (swell), sibi (cf. su-us).
19 Consonants in the middle of a word. — In the middle of a
word if two consonants come next each other which cannot be
easily sounded together, either one drops out, qualus for
quas-lus, basket, or one is assimilated to the other, as in sella
for sedla, a seat. A mute often drops out before a nasal or liquid,
with lengthening of the preceding vowel, as in examen for
exagmen.
Other cases in which a letter is dropped are quintus for older
quinctus ; ascribe for ad-scribo ; asporto for abs-porto; bimestris
from stem bi-menstri- ; judex from jus-die-.
20 Consonant Assimilation is ot two kinds :
(a) Complete Assimilation, when the first letter becomes the
same as the following one :
Assimilation of mute to semi-vowel : alloquor for ad-loquor ;
arrogo for ad-rogo; summus for supmus (supremus).
Mute to spirant : assentio for ad-sentio, offero for ob-fero.
Mute to mute : suggero for sub-gero ; accido for ad-cado ;
succumbo for sub-cumbo.
Spirant to spirant : differo for dis-feio.
(b) Partial assimilation, when the first letter changes to one
which combines more easily with the following one.
A soft mute becomes hard before another hard sound : rexi
(rec-si), rectum from rego ; scripsi, scriptum, from scribo.
m becomes n (ng) before a guttural and n before a dental ;
LAWS OF SOUND
congruo (sounded cong-gruo), conduce, consto. n becomes m
before a labial : impotens, imbibo. A bard mute becomes soft
between vowels or between a vowel and a semi- vowel : triginta
for tricenta ; publicus, stem poplico-.
Note, — tt and dt change to ss : hence the supines in -sum and
past participles in -sus are formed : defend-to- becomes defensso-,
defensum ; claudto-, clausso-, clausum, pat-to- becomes passo-,
passus.
Occasionally a following consonant is assimilated to the pre-
ceding one : collum for colsum ; ferre for ferse.
DissL nilation is seen in caeruleus from caelum, meridies for
medidies ; and in Adjectives in -aris and -alis, familiaris, naturalis.
s (when soft) between two vowels always changes to r : flores,
honores, from flos, honos ; quaeso becomes quaero.
21 Metathesis. — Interchange of position between a vowel and
semi-vowel in the same syllable. This is chiefly seen in the
case of r : ter, tres ; sperno, sprevi ; tero, trivi.
Note. — When the vowel becomes the last letter of the stem by this
change of position, it is always lengthened.
22 Consonants at the end of a word. — A Latin word never
ends in a double consonant : mell-, farr-, become mel, far.
A dental drops off after a guttural : lac, from stem lact-.
The only exceptions are a labial mute or nasal followed by s :
urbs, stirps, dens, hiems (usually written hiemps).
c or g followed by s becomes x : dux, rex.
d falls off hi cor, stem cord-, and in the ablative singular
extra(d), intra(d).
n regularly falls off in the nominative of the n-stems : leo.
Note. — Both m and n were very lightly sounded at the end of a
word, and a syllable ending in m is sometimes elided before a
vowel : ' animum advertere.' This elision takes place regularly in
poetry. Final d and t were also lightly sounded and are sometimes
interchanged : haud, haut.
23 Dropping of Syllables. — When two syllables beginning with
the same letter come together in the middle of a word, the
first one is sometimes dropped. Thus veneni-ficium becomes
veneficium, consuetitudo consuetudo.
FLEXION
FLEXION.
24 FLEXION is a change made in the form of a word to show
differences of meaning and use.
The Stem is the simplest form of a word in any language
before it undergoes changes of Flexion.
The Character is the final letter of the Stem.
The Root is the primitive element which the word has in
common with kindred words in the same or in other languages.
Every word has a Stem and a Boot. They may be the same,
but more often the Stem is formed from the Eoot. Thus in
agitare, agita- is the Stem and a the Stem- Character, but ag-
is the Root, as shown by other words, agere, agmen, agilis.
Note 1. — A language which expresses changes of meaning chiefly
by Flexion, and makes little use of help-words, is called synthetic.
Latin is a synthetic language. A language which has little Flexion
and uses many help-words is called analytic. English as now spoken
is an analytic language. In analytic languages the place of the
flexional endings is often supplied by prepositions used with nouns :
Caesaris, of Caesar ; by auxiliaries used with verbs : agitur, it is
being done. Analytic languages also use the article : rex, a king,
or the king ; and they use pronouns with verbs : ago, I do.
Note 2. — Flexion sometimes takes place by letter-change in the
Boot-syllable, ag-i-mus, egi-mus, or by an addition before it, which
is called a Prefix, as ce-cm-i from cano. Most frequently, however,
it consists in an addition made after the Stem, which is called a
Suffix. In agitare, -re is a Suffix, and is also the ending ; in
agitaremus, a second Suffix, -mus, is added and becomes the ending.
12 PARTS OF SPEECH
PAKTS OP SPEECH.
25 Words are divided into :
I. NOUNS : which are of three kinds :
Substantivesfnam.es of persons, places, or things:
Caesar, Caesar ; Roma, Rome ; sol, sun ; virtus, virtue.
Adjectives, which express the qualities of Substantives :
Roma antiqua, ancient Rome ; sol Claras, the bright sun.
Pronouns, which stand for a Substantive or Adjective :
ego, J; ille, that, lie; meus, my, mine.
II. VEKBS : which express an action or state :
Sol dat lucem, the sun gives light ; Eoma manet, Rome remains.
III. PAKTICLES : which are of four kinds :
Adverbs, which qualify and limit Verbs, Adjectives, and
sometimes other Adverbs :
Eoma diu floruit ; nunc minus potens est.
Rome flourished long ; now it is less powerful.
Prepositions, which denote the relation of a Noun to other
words in the sentence :
Per Eomam erro, I wander through Rome.
Conjunctions, which connect words, phrases, and sentences :
Caelum suspicio ut lunam et sidera videam.
J look up to tlie sky that I may see tlie moon and stars.
Interjections : words of exclamation : hen, eneu, alas t
In this book the word Noun is often used for Noun Substantive.
DECLENSION 13
The Parts of Speech are therefore eight :
(1) Substantives (5) Adverbs
(2) Adjectives (6) Prepositions
(3) Pronouns (7) Conjunctions
(4) Verbs (8) Interjections
Which have Flexion. Which are without Flexion except
the comparison of Adverbs.
26 The flexion of Nouns is called Declension ; that of Verbs,
Conjugation.
There is no Article in Latin. Lux may stand for a light,
the light, or simply light.
27 Substantives are (a) Concrete : vir, man ; mensa, table,
(b) Abstract : virtus, virtue. Proper names are names of per-
sons or places : Caesar, Eoma. A Collective Substantive includes
many persons or things of the same kind : turba, crowd.
Numerals are words which express Number. They are
Adjectives, as unus, one ; duo, two ; or Adverbs, as semel, once ;
bis, twice.
DECLENSION.
28 Declension is the change of form which Nouns undergo to
show changes of Number and Case.
29 The NUMBERS are two :
Singular for one person or thing : mensa, a table ; gens,
a nation.
Plural for more than one : mensae, tables ; gentes, nations.
30 Case is the form which a Noun takes to show its relation to
other words in the sentence.
The CASES are six :
Nominative, the Subject Case, answering the question
Who ? or What ?
Vocative, the Case of one addressed.
Accusative, the Object Case, answering the question Whom?
or What ?
Genitive, answering the question Of whom ? or Of what ?
Dative, answering the question To whom? or To what?
Ablative, answering the question From whom? or From
what ?
14 DECLENSION
Examples of the cases :
Nominative. Sol lucet, the sun shines.
Vocative. Sol or o sol, o sun.
Accusative. Solem lucere video, I see the sun shine.
Genitive. Solis lux, the sun's light, or tlie light of
the sun.
Dative. Soli lux additur, light is added to the sun.
Ablative. Sole lux editur, light issues from the sun.
Note 1. — The dative is also rendered for in English : Senatus
urbi consulit, the Senate consults for the city.
Note 2. — The ablative is rendered by many English prepositions
besides from: in, by, with. To express the person by whom an
action is done, the ablative is used with the preposition a, ab :
Bemus a Bomulo interfectus est, Remus was slain by Romulus.
To express the instrument with which an action is done, the ablative
is used alone : Eemus gladid interfectus est, Remus was slain with
(or by) a sword.
Note 3. — In ancient Latin there were two more cases, the
Instrumental answering the question With what ? and the Locative
answering the question Where? The use of the Instrumental
passed entirely to the ablative. But the Locative is often found in
classical literature : huml, on the ground ; Bomae, at Rome ; Athenls,
at Athens.
EULES OF GENDEB.
31 The Genders are three :
1, Masculine; 2, Feminine; 8, Neuter (neutrum, neither
of the two).
Gender is shown by the form of a word and by its meaning.
(A) Form :
(a) Masculine are most Substantives in -us of tho Second and
Fourth Declensions, and those in -er of the Second Declension.
(b) Feminine are nearly all Substantives in -a of the First
Declension and in -es of the Fifth Declension.
DECLENSION 15
(c) Neuter are Substantives in -urn of the Second Declension,
in -u of the Fourth Declension, and indeclinable nouns, including
the infinitive verb-noun.
For the third declension no general rule can be given.
(B) Meaning :
(a) Masculine are all names of men, gods, months, and
winds ; also of most rivers and mountains : Romulus, Mars,
October, Boreas, north wind, Tiberis, Olympus.
Exceptions : Some mountains and a few rivers ending in
-a or -e are feminine : Allia, Lethe, Aetna, Bhodope, Alpes
(plur.) ; neuter, Pelion, Soracte.
(6) Feminine are all names of women, goddesses, islands ; and
of most countries, cities, and trees : Cornelia, Juno, Lesbos,
Asia, Eoma, pmus, pine.
Exceptions : Countries ending in -um, neuter ; Latium ;
Pontus, masculine. Cities with plur. form in -i are masc. :
Corioli, Delphi ; those in -um, -on, -a (plur.) are neuter :
Tarentum, Ilion, Arbela.
Note 1. — In the early ages people imagined natural objects as
living beings, and made them masculine or feminine, according to
their notions of their qualities : ventus, wind, fluvius, river, mons,
mountain, masculine ;— regio, country, urbs, city, arbor, tree,
feminine ; and words belonging to these classes took the same
genders.
Note 2. — Many o- Stems masc. (called Mobilia) have a corre-
sponding form in -a feminine :
f Ilius, son. deus, god. arbiter i .
fllia, daughter. dea, goddess. arbitra I "
Other corresponding forms are used : rex, king, reglna, queen ;
victor, victrix, conqueror; nepos, grandson, neptis, granddaughter ;
socer, socrus, father-, mother-in-law.
Note 3. — Nouns which include both masculine and feminine are
said to be of common gender : sacerdos, priest or priestess, vates, seer,
parens, parent, dux, leader, comes, companion, civis, citizen, custos,
guardian, jiidex, judge, heres, heir, ales, bird, canis, dog, serpens,
serpent, tlgris, tiger.
Many names of animals, though used of both sexes, have (in
grammar) only one gender ; they are called Epicene : aquila, eagle,
fern.; lepus, Tiare.masc.; passer, sparrow, masc.
(For Memorial Lines on Gender, see Appendix IV.)
16
DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES
DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES.
Substantives are grouped in Declensions according to the
Character or final letter of the Stem as follows :
(1) FIEST DECLENSION : A- Stems.
(2) SECOND DECLENSION : 0- Stems.
(8) THIED DECLENSION : Consonant Stems and I- Stems.
(4) FOURTH DECLENSION : U- Stems.
(5) FIFTH DECLENSION : E- Stems.
TABLE OP CASE-ENDINGS.
Decl.
Stemi
Char. 1
I.
a-
n.
6-
II
„ •"
consonant
I.
IV.
U-
V.
e-
1-
SINGULAR
/• (m-)
m.(f.)n.
m. f. n.
/. m. n.
w. (/.) n.
/•
Nom.
a
iis um
various
Is 1
iis u
es
r
Voc.
—
i
— —
— —
— —
—
im
Ace.
am
um —
em —
•HI
um —
em
em
Gen.
ae
I
is
Is
us
ex
Dat.
ae
6
i
i
iii(u)
el
Abl.
a
0
1
lorS
u
6
PLUBAL
Nom.
ae
i a
es a
es la
us ua
es
Voc.
—
— —
— —
— —
— —
—
Ace.
as
OS
es
18
us -
es
es
Gen.
arum
orum
um
ium
uum
eruxn
Dat.
is
is
ft>iis
Ibiis
Ibus
ebiis
Abl.
—
—
—
—
—
DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES 17
33 The Character of the Stem is most clearly seen before the
ending -um or -rum of the Genitive Plural.
The Nominative, masculine and feminine, takes s, except in
a- Stems, some Stems in ro- of the Second Declension, and Stems
in s, 1, r, n, of the Third. The Vocative (which is not a true
case) is like the Nominative, except in the singular of Nouns in
-us of the Second Declension.
Neuters have the Accusative like the Nominative in both
singular and plural ; the plural always ends in a.
34 FIRST DECLENSION.
A- Steins.
The Nominative Singular is the same as the Stem.
Stem mensa-
table, f.
SINO. PLTJR.
Nom. mensa, a table. mensae, tables.
Voc. mensa, o table. mensae, o tables.
Ace. mensam, a table. mensas, tables.
Gen. mensae, of a table. mensarum, of tables.
Dat. mensae, to a table. mensis, to tables.
Abl. mensa, from a table. mensis, from tables.
Decline like mensa : aquila, eagle ; lima, moon ; reglna, queen ; stella, star.
Stems in a are mostly feminine. A few are masculine, as
scrlba, a notary ; Hadria, the Adriatic sea.
Note 1. — An old form of the gen. sing, -al for -ae is sometimes
used by poets, as aulai. Also an old genitive of familia remains in
compounds : pater- (mater-) familias, father (mother) of a family.
Note 2. — The locative sing, ends in -ae ; the plur. in -Is ;
Romae, at Rome; mllitiae, at the war; Athems, at Athens.
Note 3 — The gen. plur. is sometimes formed in -um instead of
-arum, by compounds with -cola, -gena : agricola, a farmer ; and in
some words borrowed from Greek : amphora, drachma.
Note 4. — Dea and rilia have dat. and abl. plural -abus, in order
to distinguish them from the dat. and abl. plural of deus and filius.
C
Ib
DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES
35 SECOND DECLENSION.
0- Stems.
The Nominative is formed from the Stem by adding s ; in
neuter nouns, m ; the Character 6 being weakened to u.
In the greater number of nouns whose Stem ends in ero, or in
10 preceded by a mute, the o is dropped, and the Nom. ends in -er.
Stem
anno-
pue"rS-
magistro-
bello-
year
, m.
boy, m.
master, m.
war, n.
SING.
Nom.
annus,
a year
puer
magister
bellum
Foe.
anne,
o year
puer
magister
bellum
Ace.
annum,
a year
puermn
magistrum
bellum
Gen.
anni,
of a year
puerl
magistri
belli
Dat.
anno,
to a year
puerd
magistro
bello
Abl.
anno,
from a year
puero
magistro
bello
PLUR.
Nom.
anni,
years
pueri
magistri
bella
Voc.
anni,
o years
pueri
magistri
belli
Ace.
annos,
years
pueros
magistr5s
bella
Gen.
annorum,
of years
puerorum
magistrorum
bellorum
Dat.
annis,
to years
pueris
magistrls
bellis
Abl.
annis,
from years
pueris
magistris
bellis
Decline like annus : amicus, friend ; dominus, lord ; servus, slave.
Decline like puer: gener, son-in-law; socer, fatJier-in-law; liberi (plur.),
children ; lucifer, light-bringer ; armiger, armour-bearer.
Decline like magister : ager, field ; cancer, crab ; liber, book.
Decline like bellum : regnum, "kingdom ; verbum, word.
Nouns in us, er, are masculine ; in um neuter.
The following in us are feminine besides words feminine by
meaning: &lv\is, paunch ; colus, distaff : humus, ground ; vannus,
winnowing-fan • also several from the Greek : arctus, the
bear constellation ; carbasus, linen ; plur. carbasa, n., sails.
Neuter in us (and used in the sing, only) are pelagus, sea ; virus,
venom.
Note. — Vulgus, crowd, is generally neuter, rarely masculine
DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES 19
The following have some exceptional forms : —
Stem
Mi6-
vlro-
de6-
son, m.
man, m.
god, m.
SING.
Nom.
films
vir
deus
Voc.
fill
vir
dfius
Ace.
filium
virum
deum
Gen.
filii or fill
virl
del
D. Abl.
filio
viro
deo
PLUB.
N.V.
filii
virl
di (dei)
Ace.
filios
viros
deos
Gen.
filiorum
virorum or virum
deorum or deum
D. Abl.
filiis
viris
dis (deis)
Note 1.— Like films are declined genius, guardian spirit, and many
proper names in -lus : Claudius, Vergilius ; like vir, its compounds,
decemvir, triumvir, &c. The contracted gen. sing, in -i, as fill,
ingenl, is used by writers of the best age, especially poets.
Note 2. — The locative singular ends in I ; the plural in Is : humi,
on tlie ground ; belli, at tlie war ; Mileti, at Miletus ; Philippis,
at Philippi.
Note 3. — The genitive plural in -urn is often found ; especially
in words denoting coins, sums, weights, and measures : nummus,
coin; talentum, talent. Some nouns have genitive plural in -um
or -orum : socius, ally ; faber, smith ; llberi, children. Also superi,
tfie gods, from adj. superus (304).
THIRD DECLENSION.
Consonant and I- Stems.
The Third Declension contains —
A. Consonant Stems.
MUTES —
(1) Gutturals, c, g.
(2) Dentals, t, d.
(3) Labials, p, b.
SPIKANT, s.
NASALS, n, m.
LIQUIDS, l, r.
B. I- Stems.
20
DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES-
Syllabus of Consonant Substantives, shcnving Stem-ending
with Nominative and Genitive Singular.
Stem-ending
Nominative Sing.
Genitive Sing.
English
Stems
in Gutturals with x in Norn, for cs
or gs.
ac-
fax, f.
facis
torch
ac-
pax, f.
pacis
peace
ec-
nex, f.
necis
death
ec- ic-
apex, m.
apicis
peak
ec-
vervex, m.
vervecis
wether
Ic-
fornix, m.
formcis
arch
Ic-
judex, c.
judicis
judge
le-
radix, f.
radicis
root
Se*
vox, f.
vocis
voice
uc-
dux, c.
ducis
leader
uc-
lux, f.
lucis
light
eg-
grex, m;
gregis
flock
eg-
rex, m.
regis
king
eg- ig-
remex, m.
remigis
rower
ig-
strix, f.
strigis
screech-owl
ug-
conjunx, c.
conjugia
ivife or husband
fig-
wanting
frugis, f.
fruit
IV-
nix, f.
nivis
snow
Stems
in Dentals drop t,
d, before s in the
Norn.
at-
anas, f.
anatis
duck
at-
aetas, f.
aetatis
age
gt-
seges, f.
segetis
corn-crop
gt-
paries, m.
parietis
room-wall
et-
quies, f.
quietis
rest
6t- It-
milgs, c.
militis
soldier
Ik
caput, n.
capitis
head
ot-
nfipos, m.
nepotis
grandson
ut-
virtus, f.
virtutis
virtue
ct-
lac, n.
lactis
milk
ad-
vas, m.
vadis
surety
ed-
pes, m.
pedis
foot
ed-
merces, f.
mercedis
hire
aed-
praes, m.
praedis
bondsman
6d- id-
obse's, c.
obsldis
hostage
id-
lapis, m-
lapldis
stone
6d-
custos, c.
custodis
guardian
ud-
pecus, f.
pecudis
beast
ud-
incus, f.
incudis
anvil
aud-
la us, f.
laudis
praise
rd-
c6r, n.
cordis
heart
DECLENSIOA7 OF SUBSTANTIVES
21
Stems
in Labials form Nom. regularly with s.
ap-
wanting
dapis, f.
banquet
ep- ip-
princeps, c.
priiicipis
chief
ip-
wanting
stipis, f.
dole (a small coin)
op-
wanting
opis, f.
help
ep- up-
auceps, m.
aucupis
fowler
Stems
in the Spirant s,
which, except
in vas, becomes r.
as-
vas, n.
vasis
vessel
aes- aer-
aes, n.
aeris
copper, bronze
es- er-
Ceres, f.
Cfireris
Ceres
is- er-
cinis, m.
cineris
cinder
6s- or-
honos, m.
honoris
honour
6s- 6r-
tempus, n.
temporis
time
us- er-
opus, n.
operis
loork
us- ur-
crus, n.
cruris
leg
Stems
in Liquids.
al-
sal, in.
sails
salt
ell-
mel, n.
mellis
honey
n-
mugil, m.
mugilis
mullet
51-
sol, m.
solis
sun
iil-
consul, m.
consulis
consul
ar-
jubar, n.
jubaris
sunbeam
arr-
far, n.
farris
flour
er-
anser. m.
anseris
goose
er-
ver, n.
veris
spring
ter- tr-
mater, f.
matris
motlier
6r-
aequdr, n.
aequdris
sea
6r-
6bur, n.
eboris
ivory
6r-
soror, f.
sororis
sister
iir-
vultur, m.
vultiuis
vulture
ur-
fur, m.
furis
thief
Stems
in Nasals.
en-in-
nomen, n.
nommis
name
6n- in-
homo, m.
hominis
man
6n-
leo, m.
leonis
lion
ion-
ratio, f.
rationis
reason
rn-
caro, f.
carnis
flesh
an-
cams, c.
canis
dog
en-
juvenls, c.
juvenis
young person
em-
hiemps, f.
hie mis
winter
22
DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES
38
A. Consonant Stems.
(1) Stems in Gutturals : c, g.
Stem judic-
radio-
reg-
judge,
root, f.
king, m.
SING.
N. F. judex,
a judge
radix
rex
Ace. judicem,
a judge
radlcem
regem
Gen. judicis,
of a judge
radicis
regis
Dat. judici,
to a judge
radici
regi
Abl. judice,
from a judge
radice
rege
PLUB.
N. F. judices,
judges
radices
reges
Ace. judices,
judges
radices
reges
Gen. judicum,
of judges
radicum
regum
Dat. judicibus,
to judges
radicibiis
regibus
Abl. judicibus,
from judges
radicibus
regibus
Decline also : f . vox, voc-, voice ; c. dux, diic-, leader ; m. grex, grgg--, flock.
39
(2) Stems in Dentals : t, d.
ped- capit-
foot, m. head, n.
pes caput
pedem caput
pedis capitis
pedi capiti
pede capite
pedes capita
pedes capita
pedum capitum
pedibus capitibus
pedibus capitibus
Decline also : f. virtus, virtut-, virtue ; c. seges, seget-, corn ; m. lapis,
lapid-, stone.
Stem
milit-
soldier, c.
SING.
N. V.
miles
Ace.
militem
Gen.
militis
Dat.
militi
Abl.
milite
PLUB.
N. V.
milites
Ace.
milites
Gen.
militum
Dat.
militibus
Abl.
militibus
DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES 23
40 (8) Stems in Labials : p, b.
Stem princgp-
princip-
chief, c.
SING. PLUS.
N. F. princeps principes
Ace. principem principes
Gen. principis principum
Dat. principi principibus
Abl. principe principibus
Decline also : c. forceps, forcip- , tongs ; m. auceps, aucup-, fowler.
41 Stems in the Spirant s.
Stems in s do not add s in the Nominative Singular, and
generally they change s into r in the other cases.
Stem
flos-
6pus-
crus-
flor-
6per-
crur-
flower, m.
worJc, n.
Ug, n.
SING.
N. V.
fids
opus
cms
Ace.
florem
opus
crus
Gen.
floris
opens
cruris
Dat.
flori
open"
cmri
Abl.
flore
opere
cmre
PLUB.
N. V.
flores
opera
crura
Ace.
flores
opera
crura
Gen.
florum
operum
cmrum
Dat.
floribus
operibus
cruribus
Abl.
flcribus
operibus
cruribus
Decline also: m. honos, honor-, lumour; n. tempus, tempdr-, time ;
corpus, corp5r-, body ; genus, gengr-, race ; jus, jur-, law.
Note 1. — Vas, vas-, a vessel, keeps s in all the cases, and has
plural vasa, vasorum, vasls. Os, oss-, n., bone, as, ass-, m., a coin,
keep s in all the cases, and have gen. plur. ossium, assium.
Note 2. — Honos, colos, colour, and other words changed in later
Latin to honor, color, &c., in the nom. sing., with gen. -oris. Arbos,
f., changed to arbur, arboris, tree.
24
DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES
42 Stems in Liquids : 1, r.
Stems in 1, r, do not take s in the Nominative Singular.
Stem
consiil-
amor-
pater-
aequ6r-
patr-
consul, m.
love, m.
father.
sea, n.
SING.
N. V.
consul
amor
pater
aequor
Ace.
consulem
amorem
patrem
aequor
Gen.
consults
amoris
patris
aequoris
Dat,
consul!
amori
patrl
aequori
Abl.
consule
amore
patre
aequore
PLUB.
N. V.
consules
amores
patres
aequora
Ace,
consules
amores
patres
aequora
Gen*
consulum
amorum
patrum
aequorum
Dat.
consulibus
amoribus
patribus
aequoribus
AbL
consulibus
amoribus
patribus
aequoribus
Decline also: m. sol, sol-, sun; orator, orator-, speaker; career, career-^
prison; f rater, fratr-, brother; n. ebur, ebdr-, ivory.
Stems in Nasals : n, m.
Stems ending in n do not take s in the Nominative Singular.
Stems in on, on, drop the n.
Stem leon-
lion, m.
SING.
N. V.
leo
Ace.
leonem
Gen.
leonis
Dat.
leoni
Abl.
leone
PLUB.
N. V.
leones
Ace.
leones
Gen.
leonum
Dat.
leonibuo
Abl.
leonlbus
virgSn-
nomen-
virgin-
nomin-
virgin, f.
name, n.
virgo
nomen
virginem
nomen
virginis
nominis
virgini
nomini
virgine
nomine
virgines
noinina
virgines
nomina
virginum
nominum
virginibus
nominibus
virginibus
' nominibus
Decline also : m. latro, latron-, robber ; f. ratio, ration-, reason ; m. ordo,
ordin-, order ; homo, boxnln-, man ; n. carmen, carmln-, song.
There is only one Stem in m : hiemps, winter ; Gen. higmis.f.
DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES 25
B. I-Stems.
44 (1) Stems with Norn. Sing, in -is, and in -er from stem ri- :
Stem clvi- imbri-
citizen, c. shower, m.
SING.
N. V. civis imber
Ace. civem imbrem
Gen. civis imbris
Dat. civl imbri
Abl. cive, -I imbre, -I
PLUK.
N. V. cives imbres
Ace. cives imbres
Gen. civium imbrium
Dat. civibiis imbribus
Abl. civibus imbribiis
Decline like civis : m. amnis, river ; ignis, fire; f. avis, bird.
Decline like imber : f. linter, boat; m. uter, leatliern bottle.
Note 1. — Some words have ace. -im, abl. I : f. tussis, cough; sitis,
thirst ; most rivers and towns, m. Tiberis, Tiber ; f. Neapolis, Naples.
Sometimes f . febris, fever ; puppis, stern ; turris, tower ; clavis, key ;
navis, ship ; restis, rope ; securis, axe ; sementis, sowing. Ignis has
usually abl. ignl. The ace. plur. is sometimes written -is, which is
the older form.
Note 2. — Tls, force, is the only long I-stem. It has ace. sing.
vim, abl. sing, vl, plur. vires, vlrium, vlribus.
45 (2) Stems with Nom. Sing, in -es :
Stem nubl-
cloud, f.
SING. PLUK.
N. V. nubes nubes
Ace. nubem nubes
Gen. nubis nubium
Dat. nubi nubibiis
Abl. nube nubibus
Decline also : cautes, rock ; moles, pile ; rupes, crag.
Note. — Some have ncm. sing, -es or -is : valles or vallis, valley ;
vulpes or vulpis, fox. Trabs, beam, plebs, tJie common people, are
often found for trabes, plebes. Fames, hunger, has abl. sing. fame.
26 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES
[Q (3) Stems which have two consonants (a liquid or nasal and
a mute) before i, and drop i before the s in the Nom. Sing. :
Stem monti- urbi-
mountain, m. city, f.
SING.
N. V. mons urbs
Ace. montem urbem
Gen. mentis urbis
Dot. monti nrbl
Abl. monte urbe
PLUK.
N. V. montes urbes
Ace. montes urbes
Gen. montium urbium
Dat. montibus urbibiis
Abl. montibiis urbibiis
Decline also : f. arx, arcl-, citadel ; ars, art!-, art ; stirps, stirpl-, stem ;
frons, front!-, forehead ; frons, frondl-, leaf; m. dens, dentl-, tooth.
:7 (4) Neuter Stems with Nom. Sing, in -e, -al, -ar :
These either change i into e in the Nom. Sing, or drop the
vowel and shorten the final syllable.
Stem
cubili-
animali-
calcari-
couch
anvmal
spur
SING.
N. 7. Ace.
cublle
animal
calcar
Gen.
cubilis
animalis
calcarls
Dat. Abl.
cubili
animall
calcari
PLUB.
N. V. Ace.
cubilia
animal ia
calcaria
Gen.
cubilium
animalinm
calcarium
Dat. Abl.
cubilibus
animalibus
calcarlbus
Decline also : conclave, room ; sedlle, scat; rete, net (abl. sing, e) ; tribunal,
tribunal ; exemplar, pattern.
Note. — Mare, sea, has abl. sing, marl, or more rarely mare ;
the gen. plur. is only found once : marum. Baccar, an aromatic
root, far, flour, jubar, a sunbeam, nectar, nectar, have abl. sing. -e.
DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES 27
Consonant stems and I- stems are placed in one declension because
of the difficulty of distinguishing their forms. I-stems are very rare
in early Latin ; they were being developed in the Classical period,
and their forms are liable to uncertainty. The Gen. Plur. (by which
in other declensions the stem is determined) often varies in the third
declension between -um and -ium. In classing words as Consonant
or I-stems, the Gen. Plur. must be considered, together with the Ace.
Sing, -em or -im, Abl. Sing, -e or -i ; Ace. Plur. -es or -is, and in
neuters the Nom. Plur. -ia ; but often the classification remains
doubtful, and rests chiefly on analogy with other Latin words, or
on comparison with cognate words in other languages.
The following rule with regard to the form of the Gen. Plur.
may be given for practical convenience : —
Nouns with a syllable more in the Gen. Sing, than in the Nom.
Sing. (Imparisyllabic Nouns) have Gen. Plur. in -um.
Nouns with the same number of syllables in the Nom. Sing, and
Gen. Sing. (Parisyllabic Nouns) have Gen. Plur. in -ium.
The chief exceptions to this rule are the following : —
(a) Imparisyllabic Nouns which have Gen. Plur. in -ium are : glis,
lis, mas, mus, nox, and Nouns of one syllable of which the
Nom. Sing, ends in -ns, -rs, -ps, -bs, -rx, -lx.*
Often also, ren, lar, dos, Nouns of two syllables with Nom.
Sing, ending in -ns, -rs, and most Nouns in -as (gen.
-atis). These last and Nouns in -ns are especially vari-
able. Horace writes both parentuin and parentium, but
the latter is rare. Livy writes always civitatium ; Cicero
chiefly civitatum.
(&) Parisyllabic Nouns which have Gen. Plur. in -um are : canis,
juvenis, senex, sedes, pater, mater, frater, accipiter.t
Sometimes also, apis, mensis, vates, volucris.
* Nouns of one syllable, of which the Stem lias two Consonants before i-, are only
apparently Imparisyllabic because the Xom. Siug. originally ended in -is (47), and of some
both forms are found ; e.g. orbs and orbis.
t Pater, mater, frater, accipiter, are only apparently Parisyllabic because the e of the
Nom. Sing, has fallen out in the other oases.
28 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES.
50 The following have exceptional forms : —
(1) Jnppiter (for Dieus-piter) and bos (for bous), ox.
SING. PLUB.
N. V. Juppiter bos boves
Ace. Jovem bovem boves
Gen. Jovis bovis bourn
Dat. Jovi bovl bobus or bubus
Abl. Jove bove bobus or bubus
(2) Two stems in -u, declined like consonant nouns : grus, crane,
sus, pig. These are the only uncontracted u- nouns.
SING. PLUE. SING. PLDR.
N. V. grus grues sus sues
Ace. gruem grues suem sues
Gen. gruls gruum suis suum
Dat. grui gruibus sul suibus (subus)
Abl. grue gruibus sue suibus (subus)
Iter, journey, has gen. sing, itineris (and rarely iteris).
Jecur, liver, jecoris, and jecinoris.
Senex, old man, has Sing. Ace. senem, Gen. senis, Dat. seni, Abl. sene ;
Plur. N.. Ace. senes, Gen. senum, Dat. Abl. senibus.
Supellex, furniture, forms the other cases from stem supellectili-.
Jusjurandum, oath, is declined in both parts : N. V. Ace. jusjurandum ;
Gen. jurisjurandi ; Dat. jurijurando ; Abl. jure jurando. No plural.
Paterfamilias, materfamilias, father, mother of a family, have pater,
mater fully declined in the sing, cases, but familias remains unaltered. The
plur. patresfamiliarum is sometimes found.
Note. — The locative sing, of the third declension ends in -I or -e ; the
plural in -Ibus : run, rure, in tJie country ; vesperl, vespere, in the evening ;
Carthagini, Carthagine, at Carthage ; Gadibus, at Gades (Cadiz).
GEKDEE IN THIRD DECLENSION.
51 Consonant Stems.
Masculine are nouns which end in-os, -o (except -do, -go, -io),
-or, -er, and Imparisyllabic nouns in -is or -es.
Exceptions :
cos, whetstone, dos, dowry, f. ; os, ossis, bone, os, oris, mouth, n.
echo, ec}io, caro, flesh, f.
arbor, tree, f. ; aequor, sea, marmor, marble, cor, lieart, n.
ver, spring, cadaver, corpse, iter, journey, tuber, hump, uber, udder,
verber, lash, n. ; also some names of plants, as papa ver, poppy.
compes, fetter, merces, hire, merges, sheaf, quies, rest, requies, rest,
seges, corn, teges, mat, f.
DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES 29
52 Feminine are nouns which end in -x, -as, -ps, -do, -go, -io,
and nouns in -us of more than one syllable.
Exceptions :
Nouns in -ex are masculine or common, but lex, law, nex, death,
forfex, sltcars, supellex, furniture, ilex, oak, f.
calix, cup, fornix, arch, m. ; dux, leader, c.
as, coin, vas, surety, m. ; fas, right, nefas, wrong, vas, vessel, n.
manceps, buyer, m. ; municeps, burgess, c. ; princeps, chief, c.
cardo, hinge ; ordo, order, m.
ligo, lioe, m. ; margo, brink, c.
Concrete nouns in -lo are masculine : piigio, dagger ; papilio, butterfly.
Abstract nouns in -to are feminine : ratio, reason ; regio, region.
53 Neuter are nouns in -us, -us (in words of one syllable), -en,
-1, -ar, -ur.
Exceptions :
lepus, hare, m. ; pecus, pecudis, single head of cattle, f.
mils, mouse, m. ; grus, crane, sus, pig, c.
pecten, comb, ren, kidney, splen, spleen, tlblcen, flute-player, m.
mugil, mullet, sal, salt, sol, sun, m.
lar, god of the hearth, m.
furfur, bran, lemur, goblin, turtur, turtle dove, vultur, vulture, m.
Praes, bondsman, is masc. ; laus, praise, fraus, deceit, are fem. ; lac, milk,
caput, head, aes, copper, are neuter.
54 I- Stems.
Most Parisyllabic nouns in -is and -es are feminine.
Exceptions : the following nouns in -is are masculine :
amnis, river crlnis, hair mensis, month unguis, nail
axis, axle ensis, siuord orbis, circle vectis, lever
canalis, canal fascis, bundle panis, bread vermis, worm
caulis, cabbage follis, bag piscis, fish casses. nets > ,
clunis, haunch fustis, cudgel postis, post manes, shades i ^ r'
collis, hill ignis, fire torris, firebrand
Generally masculine are callis, path ; finis, end ; f unis, rope ; sentis,
tJiorn ; torquis, necklace.
Aclnaces, scimitar, and verres, boar, are masculine.
Nouns in -al, -ar, and -e are neuter.
Nouns in -x, -bs, -Is, -ns, -rs are feminine ; but fons, fountain, mons,
mountain, dens, tooth, bidens, fork, rudens, rope, torrens, torrent, oriens,
east, occidens, west, masculine ; infans, infant, parens, parent, c.
DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES
55
FOURTH DECLENSION.
TJ- Stems (contracted).
The Nominative of masculine and feminine nouns is formed
by adding & ; neuters have the plain stem with u (long).
Stem
gradu-
genu
step, m.
"knee, n.
SINGULAR.
Nom.
gradus
a step
genii
Voc.
gradus
o step
genu
Ace.
gradum
a step
genu
Gen.
gradus
of a step
genus
Dat.
gradui
to a step
genu
Abl.
gradu
from a step
genu
PLURAL.
Nom.
gradus
steps
genua
Voc.
gradus
o steps
genua
Acc.
gradus
steps
genua
Gen.
graduum
of steps
genuum
Dat.
gradibus
to steps
genibiis
Abl.
gradibus
from steps
genibus
56
Decline like gradus : m. fructus, fruit ; senatus, senate ; f. manus, liand.
Decline like genu: cornu, horn; veru, spit (dat. abl. plur., -ibus or -ubus).
Feminine nouns of this declension, besides manus, are : acus,
needle ; portions, porch ; tribus, tribe ; Idiis, Ides, and words
feminine by meaning. Neuters are : genu, cornu, veru.
Note 1. — The dat. sing, -ul is sometimes contracted into -u.
The dat. and abl. plur. -ubus is generally changed into -ibus ; but
acus, tribus, arcus, bmv, lacus, lake, partus, birth, and artus (plur.),
limbs, have always -ubus ; portus, harbour, has -ibus or -ubus.
Note 2. — Some nouns have forms of both u- and o- Stems,
especially names of trees : laurus, bay ; myrtus, myrtle. Colus, dis-
taff, has Gen. -i and us, Abl. -6 and -u, Acc. pi. -6s and us.
Domus, f., is thus declined :
SINGULAR.
domus
domum
domus
domui or domo
domo
N. V.
Acc.
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.
PLURAL.
domus
domus or domos
domorum or domuum
domibus
domibus
The locative domi. at home, is often used.
DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES 31
57 FIFTH DECLENSION.
E- Stems.
The Nom. Sing, is formed by adding s to the Stem.
Stem re-, thing.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
Norn. res . a thing res things
Foe. res o thing res o things
Ace. rem a thing res things
Gen. rel of a thing rerum of things
Dat. rel to a thing rebus to things
Abl. re from a thing rebus from things
Decline like res : dies, day (gen. dat., diel) ; acies, line of battle ; facies,
face ; series, series ; species, form ; spes, /tope ; fides, faith ; glacies,
ice ; meridies, noon.
Ees and dies are the only nouns -which occur in the Gen.,
Dat., and Abl. Plural. Fides, meridies, are Singular only.
All nouns of this declension are feminine except dies and
meridies. Dies also is feminine when it means ' an appointed
day' or ' a period of time.'
Note 1. — The greater number of nouns of this declension were
originally ia- Stems, and have forms both of e- and a- Stems.
They are declined like materies, matter, singular only.
Stem,
materia-,
and materie-.
N. V.
Ace.
Gen. Dat.
Abl.
materia
materiam
materiae
materia
materies
materiem
(materiel)
materie
Note 2. — The contracted gen. and dat. sing, in -e, as fide for fidei,
is found in Virgil and Horace. An old gen. in -I occurs in tribunus
plebi, tribune of the people. The locative ends in -e.
gg Note 3. — Bespublica, the public interest, tJie republic, the State,
is declined in both its parts :
Sing. Ace. rempublicam, Gen. reipublicae, Dat. reipublicae, Abl.
republica.
Plur. Nom. respublicae, Ace. respublicas, Gen. rerumpublicarum,
D. Abl. rebuspublicis.
32 DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES
59 DEFECTIVE AND VARIABLE SUBSTANTIVES.
Many nouns are found only in the Singular ; these are chiefly
proper names and words of general meaning : as
humus, ground. aevum, an age.
justitia, justice. aurum, gold.
laetitia, . joy. argentum, silver.
ver, spring. caelum, heaven.
vesper, evening. letum, death.
Note. — In poetry some words take plural form with singular mean-
ing : mella, Jwney, nives, snow, silentia, silence, rura, country.
3O Many nouns are used only in the Plural :
arma,
arms.
insidiae,
ambush.
artus,
limbs.
llberi,
children.
cunae,
cradle.
manes,
departed spirits.
divitiae,
riches.
moenia,
town walls.
fasti,
annals.
nugae,
trifles.
feriae,
holidays.
penates,
houseJwld gods.
indutiae,
truce.
tenebrae,
darkness.
And names of towns, days, festivals : Athenae, Delphi, Kalendae,
Calends ; Bacchanalia, festival of Bacchus.
81 Some words have a different meaning in Singular and Plural :
SlNGULAB.
PLURAL.
aedes,
temple.
aedes,
Jiouse.
auxilium,
help.
auxilia,
alliedforces.
castrum,
fort.
castra,
camp.
cera,
wax.
cerae,
waxen tablet.
copia,
plenty.
copiae,
forces.
finis,
end.
fines,
boundaries.
gratia,
favour.
gratiae,
thanks.
impedlmentum,
hindrance.
impedimenta,
baggage.
littera,
letter of the
litterae,
epistle, liter-
alphabet.
ature.
ludus,
play.
ludi,
public games
opem (ace.),
help.
opes,
wealth.
opera,
labour.
operae,
work-people.
sal,
salt.
sales,
wit.
DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES 33
62 Some nouns have two or more' forms of Declension :
NOM. GEN. NOM. GEN.
tergum, -i, _ n. \ , , pecus, -oris, n. ) ™j^
LCltCUill, -1, 11. 7 7 l-rtiUUB, -UllS, II. I • 7 1 7
taj« -Sns,,,}6 & -aaiilj^*-
eventum, -i, n. 1 . plebs, -is, f. 1 i/te common
eventus, -us, m. ) plebes, -ei, f. j people.
NOM. GEN. ABL.
jugerum, -i, n. ) vesPera' ^e 'a' f' )
Hufferl -is n \acre' vesper, -i -o, m. [ evening.
vesper, — -e, m.)
Quies, f., rest, -etis, is a t- Stem only ; but its compound
requies takes also the e- forms : requiem, requie.
63 Some o- Stems vary between masc. and neut. in Sing, or Plur. :
baculus, m., baculum, n., a stick ; plleus, m., pileum, n., a hat.
locus, m., place, pi. i°C1' frenum, n., bit, pi. |/em>
lOCcl, ri*m-»Q
jocus, m.., jest, pi. -p rastrum, n., harrow, pi.
64 In many nouns some of the cases are wanting ; thus :
feast, f., fruit, f., help, f., prayer, f., change, f.
N. V.
Ace. dapem frugem opem prgcem vicem
Gen. dapls frugis opis vicis
Dat. dapl frugl — prec!
Abl. dapg fruge ope prec6 vice
These have full plural -es, -um, -ibus, except Gen. vicium.
65 Many are used in the Abl. Sing. only.
coactu, by force. natu, by birth.
concessu, by permission. noctu, by night.
(diu) interdiu, by day. rogatu, by request.
jussu, by command. sponte, by choice.
injussu, without command.
66 Some have only Nom. Ace. S. : fas, right, nefas, wrong, instar,
likeness, size, opus, need, nihil, nothing.
34 DECLENSION OF GREEK NOUNS
DECLENSION OF GEEEK NOUNS.
FIRST DECLENSION, a- STEMS.
At an early time many Greek nouns were used in Latin, in
an almost or entirely Latin form. Masc. nouns ending in -as,
-es, and fern, nouns in -a, -e, all alike took the ending -a in the
nom., and were declined throughout like mensa. Such words
are nauta, sailor, poeta, poet.
Afterwards the Greek forms, especially of proper names, were
brought in by the poets, and thus in many instances both Greek
and Latin forms of the same words are found, while of some
words, used chiefly in poetry, the Greek forms alone occur.
Patronymics (race-names) are usually in the Greek form, as Atrldes (son
of Atreus), Pelldes (son of Pelezcs) ; and though they sometimes have -a
for es in the nom. they always retain the Greek ace. in -en.
Names of people ending in -ates, -Ites, or -otes, as Eleates (inhabitant
of Elea), generally have -em or -am in ace., being nearer to Latin words.
All these usually follow the Latin declension in the plural, even when
they have the Greek form in the singular.
MASCULINE NOUNS IN -as, -es, AND FEMININE NOUNS IN -e.
SINGULAR.
N. Aeneas Atrldes, -a Cybele, a
V. Aenea Atride, -a, -a C^bele, -a
A. Aenean Atriden Cybelen
G. Aeneae Atridae Cybeles, -ae
D. Aeneae Atridae Cybelae
Abl. Aenea Atride, -a Cybele, -a
Plural in all cases like that of mensa.
Decline also : Boreas, the north wind, Persa (-es), a Persian, Epirctes
(-ota), native of Epirus, Helene. f.
DECLENSION OF GREEK NOUNS 35
68 SECOND DECLENSION, o- STEMS.
Greek nouns of the Second Declension, especially names of persons and
places, often keep their Greek forms in the nom. and ace., but the other
cases generally take the Latin forms.
SINGULAR.
Nom. Del6s, f. Athos, m. Peli6n, n.
Foe. (Dele) (Athos) (PeliOn)
Ace. Delon, -um Athon Peli6n
Gen. Dell Atho Pelil
D.,Abl. Delo Atho Pelio
The fern, words of this Declension are chiefly names of towns, islands,
plants, and precious stones.
Nouns ending in -ros sometimes take the Latin ending -er in the nom.,
as Evander (-dros).
Decline also : scorpios, m., scorpion ; lotos, f., lotus ; Same's, Ilion.
The Greek plural forms are rare, but plural nom. in -oe, as Canephoroe,
and plur. gen. in -on, as Bucolicon, are sometimes found.
69 THIKD DECLENSION.
Consonant Stems and Stems in e, i, o, eu, y.
These nouns are very numerous, having many different endings in the
Nom. Sing.
SINGULAR. PLURAL. SINGULAR. PLURAL.
N.,V. heros, m., hero heroSs lynx, c., lynx lynces
Ace. hero-a, -em heroas lync-em, -a lync-as, -es
Gen. herois heroum lyncis lyncum
Dat. heroi heroibus lynci lyncibus
Abl. heroe herolbus lynce lyncibus
Decline also: f. lampas, gen. lampadis, torch; m. gigas, gigantis, giant \
aer, aeris, air; aether, aetheris, the upper air.
Names of this class are found in different forms, from the tendency to
latinise Greek words. Thus Perseus is called Perseus by Livy, but by
Cicero latinised to Perses in the nom., with the other cases like Greek
names of the First Declension, as Atrides.
« 2
DECLENSION OF GREEK NOUNS
Greek nouns in -on often drop the n in the nom., as Plato, Platonis ;
but sometimes it is kept, as in Cimon. Some nouns have a second form,
as elephas, elephant, which is usually declined like gigas, but sometimes
latinised to elephantus, elephanti.
Dido also has two forms of declension, (1) as an -on stem, gen. Didonis,
(2) as a u- Stem, gen. Didus.
Poema, poematis, n., poem, is regularly declined, but Cicero has dat. and
abl. plur. poematis. Poesis, f., poetry, is an I- noun, ace. poes-in or poes-im,
abl. poesi.
The accusative singular endings in -em and in -a are both frequent.
Gen. sing, usually in -is, but the Greek ending -os is often found in
poetry. The abl. sing, is always in -6, and dat. sing, in -i, but the latter
is often short (i) as in Greek. The nom. plur. is always in -es, often
short. In ace. plur. the Greek -as is usual. The Greek ending of the
abl. plur. in -si (-sin) is occasionally used by the poets.
Many names in -es, -eus, and in -Is have cases from two forms.
I- forms and Consonant forms appear in
NOM.
V.
Ace.
GEN.
DAT.
ABL.
Thal-es
-es
-em, en, eta
-is, -etis
-I, eti
-e, ete
m.
-e
Par-is
Iris
-I
/ -idem, Ida
\. -in, -im
-idis, -Idos
-Idi
-ide
f.m.
Forms of both the Second and Third Declension appear in
NOM.
V.
Ace.
GEN.
DAT.
ABL.
Orpheus
Achilleus
-eu
-eu
-eum, -ea
-ea
-el, -eos
•el, -eos
-el
-I
-eo, -co
m.
Achilles
-e
-em, -en
-is, -I
-I
-e ; m.
Ifote. — Tigris, tiger, is declined throughout as an I- noun, like
civis ; but also as a Consonant Stem in d, like Paris ; forming plur.
tigrides, tigridum, tigridas, without dat. and abl.
Decline Ulixeus (Ulixes) like Achilleus (Achilles).
DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES
33
70
DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES.
Adjectives are declined by Gender, Number and Case.
71 A. Adjectives of three endings in -us, -a, -um or -er, -a, -urn
are declined like Substantives of the Second and First Declen-
sion, 0- and A- Stems.
Stem
SING.
Nom.
Foe.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
All.
bQno-
bonus
bone
bonum
boni
bond
bond
b6na
good.
F.
bona
bona
bonam
bonae
bonae
bona
bSno-
bonum
bonum
bonum
boni
boiif
bone
PLUKAL.
Nom.
boni
Voc.
boni
Acc.
bonds
Gen.
bondrum
Dat.
bonis
Abl.
bonis
bonae
bonae
bonas
bonarum
bonis
bonis
bona
bona
bona
bondrum
bonis
boms
Decline also : cams, dear ; durus, hard ; malus, bad ; magnus, great ;
parvus, small ; dubius, doubtful.
DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES
Stem
ten6r5-
tenera-
tender.
SING.
M.
F.
Nom.
tener
tenera
Foe.
tener
tenera
Ace.
tenerum
teneram
Gen.
tenerl
tenerae
Dat.
tenerd
tenerae
Abl.
tenerd
tenera
PLUBAL.
N. F.
teneri
tenerae
Ace.
teneros
teneras
Gen.
tenerorum
tenerarum
D.,Abl.
teneris
teneris
tenero-
tenerum
tenerum
tenerum
tenerl
tenero
tenero
tenera
tenera
tenerorum
teneris
Decline also : asper, rough ; lacer, torn ; liber, free ; miser, wretclied •,
prosper, prosperous ; frugifer, fruit-bearing, plumiger, feathered, and
other compounds of fero and gero ; also satur, full, satura, saturum.
Stem
nigro-
nigra-
nTgrd-
black.
SING.
M.
F.
N.
Nom.
niger
nigra
nigrum
Foe,
niger
nigra
nigrum
.4cc.
nigrum
nigram
nigrum
Gen.
nigri
nigrae
nigri
Dat.
nigro
nigrae
nigro
Abl.
nigro
nigra
nigro
PLUEAL.
N. F.
nigri
nigrae
nigra
Ace.
nigros
nigras
nigra
Gen.
nigrorum
nigrarum
nigrorum
D.,Abl.
nigris
nigris
nigris
Decline also: aeger, sick; ater, jet-black ; pulcher, beautiful', ruber, red;
sacer, sacred.
Note. — Dexter, on the right hand, may be declined like tener
or like niger.
DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES 39
72 B. Adjectives of two endings and of one ending in the
Nominative Singular are declined like Substantives of the Third
Declension.
73 (1) Adjectives with Nominative Singular in -is, Masc. and
Fern. ; in -e Neuter : I- Stems.
Stem tristi-, sad.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
M. F. N. M. F. N.
N. V. tristis triste tristes tristia
Ace. tristem triste tristes, -Is tristia
Gen. tristis tristis tristium tristium
D .Abl. tristi tristi tristibus tristibiis
Decline also: brevis, short; omnis, all ; aequalis, equal; hostllis, hostile;
facilis, easy ; illustris, illustrious ; lugubris, mournful.
Some stems in ri- form the Masc. Nom. Sing, in -er :
Stem acri-, keen.
SING.
M.
F.
N.
N. V.
acer
acris
acre
Ace.
acrem
acrem
acre
Gen.
acris
acris
acris
Dat.
acri
acri
acri
Abl.
acri
acri
acri
PLUR.
N. V.
acres
acres
acria
Ace.
acres, -Is
acres, -is
acria
Gen.
acrium
acrium
acrium
D., Abl.
acribiis
acribiis
acribiis
Decline like acer the following : celeber, famous ; saluber, healthy ; alacer,
brisk ; volficer, winged ; campester, level; equester, equestrian ; pedes-
ter, pedestrian ; paluster, marshy ; puter, crumbling ; with September,
October, November, December, masculine only.
Note. — In celer, celeris, celere, swift, the Stem ends in -Sri- and
the e is kept throughout.
DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES
(2) Adjectives with Norn. Sing, the same for all genders :
(a) I- Stems.
Stem
Stem
N. F.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.
fellci-, happy.
M. T. SING. N.
N. V. felix felix
Acu. fellcem felix
Gen. felicis felicis
Dat. felicl felicl
Abl. felicl felicl
M. F. PLUB. N.
felices felicia
felices, -Is felicia
felicium felicium
felicibus feliclbus
felicibus felicibus
ingenti-, huge.
M. F. SING. N.
ingens ingens
ingentem ingens
ingentis
ingenti
ingenti
M. F. PLUB. N.
ingentes ingentia
ingentes, -Is ingentia
ingentium
ingentibus
ingentibus
Decline also: audax, audaci-, bold; simplex, simplici-, simple; duplex,
duplici-, double ; velox, veloci-, swift ; amans, amanti-, loving ; sapiens,
sapienti-, wise ; concors, concordi-, agreeing ; par, pari-, like.
Note 1. — Some adjectives with stems in tl have genitive plural in
-um as well as -inm : recens, recentum or recentium, consors, con-
Bortum or consortium. In Participles, however, the gen. plur. is
almost always in -ium.*
Note 2. — The abl. sing, generally ends in 1 when an adjective is
used with a substantive : a milite vigili, by a icatchful soldier ; and in e
when an adjective stands for a substantive : a vigile, by a watchman,
but a few have abl. sing, always in -i. The same rule applies to
present participles ; but in the ablative absolute construction the
ablative always ends in e : viridanti quercu cinctus, wreathed icitli
green oak ; viridante quercu, ivlien tJie oak is green.
* It is to be remarked that when either
in a Substantive or an Adjective a long
syllable comes before the Stem Character,
the genitive plural generally ends in -Ium ;
when a short vowel comes before the Stem
Character, it ends in -um ; but this
cannot be laid down as an invariable
rule.
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 41
/7 \
75
(b) Consonant Stems.
Stem divet-,
divit-, rich.
SING. N. V. dives
PLUR. divites
Ace. divitem
divites
Gen. divitis
divitum
Dat. diviti
divitibus
Abl. divite
divitibus
Decline like dives: pauper, pauper-, poor; degener, degener-, degenerate;
sospes, sospit-, safe ; superstes, superstit-, surviving ; deses, desid-,
slothful ; compos, compot-, possessing ; caelebs, caelib-, unmarried ; vetus,
veter-, old.
Note. — Dives has a contracted form dls, ace. ditem, &c. ; with abl.
sing, diti and neut. plur. dltia ; gen. plur. ditium. Dives and vetus
are used as neut. ace. sing. Vetus has neut. plur. vetera. The rest
have no neuter forms.
COMPAEISON OF ADJECTIVES.
76 Adjectives are compared in three degrees.
(1) Positive : durus, hard. tristis, sad.
(2) Comparative : durior, harder. tristior, sadder.
(3) Superlative : durissimus, hardest, tristissimus, saddest.
The Positive is the adjective itself expressing the quality ;
the Comparative expresses a greater degree ; the Superlative
expresses a very great, or the greatest, degree of the quality.
The Comparative is formed from the Positive by adding the
suffix -ior to the last consonant of the Stem ; the Superlative
generally by adding -issimus to the last consonant of the Stem.
Stem Positive Comparative Superlative
dur-o- durus dur-ior dur-issimus
trist-i- tristis trist-ior trist-issimus
audac-i- audax, bold audac-ior audac-issimus
77 The Comparative is declined as follows :
M. F. SING. N. M. F. PLUR. N.
N. V. tristior tristius tristiores tristiora
Ace. tristidrem tristius tristior-es tristiora
Gen. tristioris tristiorum
Dat. tristiori tristioribus
Abl. tristior-e, -I* tristioribus
• The Ablative in -i of the Comparative i? rare, and only used by late writers.
42 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES
78 The Superlative is declined from o- and a- Stems, like bonus.
Adjectives with Stems in ro-, ri-, form the Superlative by
doubling the last consonant of the Stem and adding -imus.
Words like niger insert e before r in the Superlative.
Stem Positive Comparative Superlative
tenero- tener tenerior tenerrimus
nigro- niger nigrior nigerrimus
celeri- celer celerior celerrimus
Six adjectives with Stems in fli- also form the Superlative by
doubling the last consonant of the Stem and adding -imus :
facilis, easy. similis, like. gracilis, slender.
difficilis, difficult. dissimilis, unlike. humilis, lowly.
facili- facilis facilior facillimus
79 Many Participles are compared like adjectives :
amans, loving amantior amantissimus
paratus, ready paratior paratissimus
IEKEGULAB COMPARISON.
80 (1) Some Comparatives and Superlatives are formed from
Stems distinct from that of the Positive :
Positive Comparative Superlative
bonus, good. melior, better. optimus, best.
malus, bad. pejor, worse. pessimus, worst.
parvus, small. minor, less. minimus, least.
multus, much. plus, more. plurimus, most.
magnus, great. major maximus
nequam (indecl.), wicked, nequior nequissimus
frugi (indecl.), honest. frugalior frugalissimus
senex, old. • senior
1 natu major natu ma*™™
juvenis, younq. f junior
\natu minor natu minimus
Note 1. — Senior, junior are not used as true comparatives of senex,
juvenis, but with the meaning old rather than young, and young
rather than old.
Note 2. — Dives has both uncontracted and contracted forms :
dives ) • , f divitior divitissimus
(dis) f ' Tl \ ditior dltissimus
vetus 1 7J i, j vetustior veterrimus
(veter)l'°W' has \ (veterior)
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 43
Plus in the Sing, is neuter only :
SING. M. F. PLUR. N.
N. V. Ace. plus plures plura
Gen. pluris plurium
Dat. Abl. plurl pluribus
81 (2) Adjectives compounded with -dicus, -ficus, -volus (from
dico, facio, volo), form the Comparative and Superlative as if
from participles in -ens.
Positive Comparative Superlative
maledicus, evil-speaking, maledlcentior maledlcentissimus
beneficus, beneficent. beneficentior beneficentissimus
benevolus, well-wishing. benevolentior benevolentissimus
Also: egrnus, needy. egentior egentissimus
providus, provident. providentior providentissimus
82 (3) Adjectives in -ens, -ius, -mis are generally compared
with the adverbs magis, maxime ; as dubius, doubtful, magis
dubius, more doubtful, maxime dubius, most doubtfiiL
Xotc. — Adjectives in -quus are compared regularly, the first u
being consonantal : aequus, level, aequicr, aequissimus ; so, antiquus,
ancient. Egregius, excellent, has comparative egregior; strenuus,
vigorous, sometimes has strenuior.
go (4) Some adjectives have no Comparative forms ; some no
Superlative ; of some the Comparative and Superlative are found
without the Positive : ocior, swifter, ocissimus, swiftest.
84 Some Comparatives denoting relations of place have no
Positive, but correspond to Adverbs from the same Stem.
Adverb.
Comparative Adj.
Superlative Adj.
'extra, outside.
exterior
extremus, extimus
intra, within.
interior
intimus
'supra, above.
superior
supremus. summus
'infra, below.
inferior
iuiTmus, imus
citra, on this side.
citerior
citimus
ultra, beyond.
ulterior
ultimus
prae, before.
prior
primus, first.
'post, after.
posterior
postremus, last.
prope, near.
propior
proximus
*Note. — The adjectives exterus, superus, inferus, posterus, are,
however, sometimes found. Also :
dexter (adj.), on the right, dexterior dexterrimus, dextimus
sinister (adU, on the left. sinisterior
[deter-] deterior, wars". deterrimus, worst.
44
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS
COMPABISON OF ADVEEBS.
85 Adverbs derived from adjectives and ending in -e, -6, -ter,
and rarely -e, form Comparative in -ius, Superlative in -issime.
Note. — These forms are the neut. ace. sing, of the Comp. adjective
and an old neut. abl. sing, of the Superl. adjective.
Adjective
Adverb
Comparative
Superlative
dignus, worthy.
tutus, safe.
fortis, brave.
constans, firm.
audax, bold.
facilis, easy.
digne, worthily.
tuto, safely.
fortiter, bravely.
constanter, firmly.
audacter, boldly.
facile, easily.
dignius
tutius
fortius
eonstantius
audacius
facilius
dignissime
tutissime
fortissime
constantissime
audacissime
facillime
86 Irregular comparison has corresponding forms in Adverbs.
Adverb
bene, well.
male, ill.
paullum, little.
multum, much.
magnSpere, greatly.
Comparative Superlative
melius optime
pejus pessime
minus minime
plus plurimum
magis maxime
ocius, more quickly, ocissime
Magis, more (in degree) ; plus, more (in quantity).
87 In like manner are compared
difl, long.
intus, within.
(prae, before).
post, after.
prope, near.
saepe, often.
nuper, lately.
diutius
interius
prius
posterius
propius
saepius
diutissime
intime
primo
postremo
proximo
saepissime
nuperrime
NUMERALS
45
88 NUMERALS.
Numeral Adjectives are of three kinds :
1. Cardinals ; answering the question, How many ?
2. Ordinals ; answering the question, Which in order of number ?
3. Distributives ; answering the question, How many each ?
Numeral Adverbs answer the question, How many times ?
89 Unus, from o- and a- Stems, is declined as follows :
SING.
Norn, iinus una unum uni
Ace. unum imam unum unos
Gen. unius unius unius unorum
Dat. uni uni uni unis
Abl. uno una und unis
PLCR.
unae una
unas una
unarum unorum
unis unis
unis unis
Du6 is an o- Stem, and tres an i- Stem.
M.
F.
N.
M. and F.
N.
Nom.
duo
duae
duo
tres
tria
Ace.
duos, duo
duas
duo
tres
tria
Gen.
duorum
duarum
duorum
trium
trium
D.,Abl.
duobus
duabus
duobus
tiibus
tribus
Decline like duo : ambo, both.
Note. — Duum is sometimes used for duorum.
The Cardinals from quattuor to centum are indeclinable.
Hundreds from tioo to nine hundred are o- and a- Stems,
ducentl, ducentae, ducenta. Mille (a thousand] is an indeclin-
able adjective ; but mllia (thousands] is a neuter substantive
declined like animalia. Mille passus, a mile.
In Compound Numbers above twenty, the order is the same
as in English. Either the smaller number with et conies first,
or the larger without et : septem et trlginta, seven and thirty ;
or trlginta septem, thirty-seven. Unus usually stands first : unus
et vlgintl, twenty-one. In numbers above a hundred the larger
comes first, with or without et.
Thousands are expressed by putting (1) the numeral adverbs
bis, ter, &c., before mille : bis mille ; or (2) cardinal numbers
before milia : duo milia. Milia is followed by a genitive : duo
milia hominum, two thousand men.
NUMERALS
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NUMERALS
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g
1—1 *o
j g
o
o
H-(
1-1 >5
0
0
ri
^ cS
« _
48 PRONOUNS
PRONOUNS.
91 Pronouns either stand in the place of Substantives, or stand
in the place of Adjectives, to define or point out Substantives.
There are three Persons :
First : The person speaking : I or we.
Second : The person spoken to : thou or ye (you).
Third : The person or thing spoken of : he, she, it, they.
Personal Pronouns stand only in place of Substantives.
Possessive Pronouns, as meus, my, stand only for Adjectives.
Most of the others can stand for Substantives or Adjectives.
92 PEBSONAL AND REFLEXIVE.
SINGULAR.
1st Person. 2nd Person.
Nom. ego, I. tu, thou (so also Voc.)
Ace. me, me. te, thee.
Gen. mei^ of me. tui, of thee.
Dat. mihi, to me. tibi, to thee.
Abl. me, from me. te, from thee.
PLURAL.
1st Person. 2nd Person.
Nom. nos, we. vos, ye (so also Voc.)
Ace. nos, us. vos, you.
Dat. nobis, to us. vobis, to you.
Abl. nobis, from us. vobis, from you.
Beflexive Pronoun.
Nom. —
Acc. se or sese, himself, herself, itself, or themselves.
Gen. sul, of himself, <&c.
Dat. sibi, to himself, dc.
Abl. se or sese, from himself, &c.
For the Personal Pronoun of the 3rd Person, he, she, it. the
Demonstrative is, ea, id, is used.
Note. — Nostri, vestri, are called Objective Genitives : memor
nostri, mindful of us (264). Nostrum, vestrum, are called Partitive
Genitives, because they are used after words which express a part :
unus nostrum, one of us (259).
93
PRONOUNS
1st Person :
NG' 2nd Person :
POSSESSIVE.
meus, mea,
tuus, tua,
meum,
tuum,
my.
thy.
49
PLUR.
1st Person : noster, nostra, nostrum, our.
2nd Person : vester, vestra, vestrum, your.
Suus, sua, suum, his, her, its, their, is the Possessive Pronoun
of the Eeflexive.
Note. — Meus, tuus, suus are declined like bonus : noster,
vester, like niger. Meus has voc. sing. masc. mi. The
other possessives, except noster, have no vocative.
94 DEMONSTKATIVE.
Is, that, or lie, she, it.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
M.
F.
N.
M.
F.
N.
Nom.
IS
ea
id
ii or el
eae
ea
Ace.
eum
earn
id
eos
eas
ea
Gen.
ejus
ejus
ejus
eorum
earum
edrum
Dat.
All.
el
eb
el
ea
el
eo
iis (els)
iis (els)
iis (els)
iis (els)
iis (eis)
iis (els)
Hie, this (near me), or he, she, it.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
Nom.
Ace.
Gen.
Dat.
Abl.
M.
hie
hunc
hujus
huic
hoc
F.
haec
hanc
hujus
huic
hac
N.
hoc
hoc
hujus
huic
hoc
M.
hi
hos
horum
his
his
F.
hae
has
harum
his
his
N.
haec
haec
horum
his
his
Ille, that (yonder), or Jie, she, it.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
M.
Nom. ille
F.
ilia
illud
Ace. ilium illam illud
Gen. illius illius illius
illi illi
Dat. illi
Abl illd
ilia illo
M. F.
illi illae
illos illas
illorum illarum
illis illls
illis illis
Iste, that (near you], is declined like ille.
ilia
ilia
illorum
Ulls
illis
PKONOUNS
95
DEFINITIVE.
Idem, same.
SINGULAR.
M.
F.
N.
Nom. Idem
eadem
idem
Ace. eundem
eandem
idem
Gen. ejusdem
Dat. eidem
ejusdem
eidem
ejusdem
eidem
Abl. eodem
eadem
eodem
PLURAL.
Nom. eidem or idem eaedem
eadem
.4c£. eosdem
easdem
eadem
Gen. eorundem
earundem
eorundem
Dat.
eisdem or isdem
Abl.
eisdem or Isdem
SINGULAR.
Ipse, self.
Nom. ipse ipsa ipsum
Ace. ipsum ipsam ipsum
Gen. ipsius ipsius ipsius
Dat. ipsl ipsi ipsi
Abl. ipso ipsa ipso
PLURAL.
F.
ipsi ipsae ipsa
ipsos ipsas ipsa
ipsorum ipsarum ipsonun
ipsis ipsis ipsis
ipsis ipsis ipsis
Note. — The suffixes -met, -te, -pte or -pse, -ce are added to some
cases of pronouns for emphasis :
(a) met may be joined (1) to ego and its cases, except gen. plur. :
egomet, I myself ; (2) to the cases of tu, except nom. sing. : vosmet,
ye yourselves ; (3) to se and its cases, except sui : sibimet ; (4) to
the cases of suus : suamet f acta.
(6) te is joined to tu : tute ; also tutemet, tliou thyself.
(c) pte is joined especially to the abl. sing, of the possessive
pronouns : meopte consillo, by my advice.
(d) ce is joined to the demonstrative : hunce, hujusce.
For istece, illece, are written istic, illic :
SING.
Nom.
M.
istio
F.
istaec
N.
istuc
Ace.
istunc
istanc
istuc
Gen.
istiusce
istiusce
istiusce
Abl.
istoc
istac
istoc
Idem (for is-dem), and ipse (for is-pse), are emphatic forms of is.
PRONOUNS
51
97
SINGULAR.
98
RELATIVE.
(Jui, ivlw,
M. F. K.
Nom. qui quae quod
Ace. quern quam quod
Gen. cujus cujus cujus
Dat. cui cui cui
Abl. quo qua quo
PLURAL.
M. F. N.
qui quae quae
quos quas quae
quorum quarum quorum
quibus or quis
quibus or quis
INTERROGATIVE.
Quis, who ? what ?
Nom
"
Ace
'
v (quis
' i qui
\qui quae quod ' [ quern quam quod
In all other Cases singular and plural qui Interrogative is
like the Relative.
INDEFINITE.
Quis, anyone or anything.
II. F. N. M, /. K.
qua quid f quern quam quid
quae quod " {quern quam quod
In the other Cases singular and plural the Indefinite is like
the Relative, except that qua or quae may be used in neut. nom.
and ace. plural.
Quis, both Interrogative and Indefinite, and its compounds,
are used chiefly as Substantives ; qui and its compounds chiefly
as Adjectives.
Quid and its compounds are used only as Substantives ;
quod and its compounds only as Adjectives.
EXAMPLES :
Homo qui venit,
Quis venit ?
TJie man wlw comes, (qui, relative.;
Who comes ? (luig, interrogative.)
Qui homo venit ? WJiat man comes ?
Aliquid amari, Some bitterness,
Aliquod verbum, Some word,
(qui, interrogative.)
K 2
PRONOUNS
100
COMPOUND PRONOUNS.
MASC.
quicumque, quaecumque, quodcumque, \whosoever, 01
quisquis, quisquis, quidqnld or quicquld, J whatsoever.
quiddam (quoddam), \a Certain per-
( son or ikmg.
aliquid, | someone or
aliquod, ' something,
quippiam (quodpiam), someone.
quidvis (quodvis), \anyone you
quidlibet (quodlibet), J like.
quldam,
aliquis,
aliqui,
quispiam,
quivis,
quilibet,
nuiennam
quaedam,
a'liqua,
aliqua,
quaepiam,
quaevis,
quaelibet,
quidquam
or quicqnam,
quidque (quodque),
utrumque,
quisque, quaeque,
uterque, utraqug,
fumsqiiisque, unaquaeque, unuinquiqug
(unumquodque),
ecquis, ecqua, ecquid (ecquod),
quisnam, quaenam, quidnam (quodnam)
Note 1. — Quisquis is found only in nom. ace. and abl.
[ anyone
[ at all.
j each one
\ severally,
each of two.
\ each single
one.
J Is there any
1 who ?
Who, pray ?
Note 2. — Quisquam is used as a substantive, sing, only, chiefly
in negative sentences and the adjective which corresponds to it ia
ullus : haud quisquam, not anyone.
Note 3. — In the Compound Pronouns qui, quis, and uter follow
their own declension in the oblique cases ; the prefix or suffix is
unaltered : alicujus, cujusque, cuivis, utroque, quamlihet* In unus-
quisque both unus and quisque are declined.
PKO NOUNS 53
101 The following Pronominal Adjectives form the Gen. Sing, in
-ius and the Dat. Sing, in -I like ille : alius, other, another ;
ullus, any ; nullus, none ; solus, sole ; totus, whole ; iiter, which
of two ; alter, one of two, the other ; neuter, neither.
SINGULAR. PLUKAL.
M. F. N. M. F. N.
Nom. alius alia aliud alii aliae alia
Ace. alium aliam aliiid alios alias alia
Gen. alms aliiis aliiis alidrum aliarum alicrum
Dat. alii alii alii aliis aliis aliis
Abl. alio alia alid aliis aliis aliis
Note. — In alius the i of the Gen. Sing, is always long. In the
Gen. of words declined like it the quantity of the i is doubtful ; also
in the Gen. of uter, neuter.
Like alius, but with Neuter Singular in -um, are declined
ullus, nullus, solus, totus.
SINGULAR.
M. F. S.
Nom. alter alter a alterum
Ace. alterum alteram alterum
Gen. alterius alterius alterius
Dat. alter! alter! alter!
Abl. altero alters altero
PLURAL.
M. F. N.
Nom. alter! alterae altera
Ace. alteros alteras altera
Gen. alterdrum alterarum alterorum
Dat. alterls alterls alterls
Abl. alterls alterls alterls
Like alter, but casting out e before r in all cases except the
Nom. Sing. Masculine, are declined, —
uter, utra, utrum, which (of two) ; neuter, neutra, neutrum,
neither. These are seldom used in the plural.
Note 1. — Uter forms compounds by taking nearly all the same
suffixes as quis and qui : utercumque, whichever of two ; utervis,
uterlibet. Alteruter, one or the other, is usually declined only as
uter, but sometimes both parts are declined.
Note 2.— The genitive and ablative singular of nullus are used for
the genitive and ablative of the substantive nemo, nobody, which are
very rarely found.
54
PRONOUNS
102
Interrogative. Demonstrative.
TABLE OP CORRELATIVE
Relative. Indefinite (1).
quis, qui, who ?
which?
is, that.
qui, who, which.
(si) quis, if any
one.
utcr, which of
two?
alter, one of two,
other of two.
qualig, of what
kind?
talis, of such kind.
qualis, as.
quantus, how
great1}
tantus, so great.
quantus, as
(great).
quot, how many ?
tot, so many.
quot, as (many).
ubi, where?
ibi, there.
ubi, where.
si(cubi), if any-
where.
unde, whence ?
inde, thence.
unde, whence.
si(cunde), if front
any quarter.
quo, whither ?
eo, thither.
quo, whither.
(si) quo, if any-
whither.
qua, by what
way?
ea, by that way.
qua, 6j/ what
way.
(si) qua, if by any
way.
quam. how ?
tarn, so.
quam, as.
quando, when ?
turn, then.
/' quando, when.
• ubi, when.
(si) quando, if
ever.
cum, when.
quotiens, how
often?
totiens, so often.
quotiens, as (of-
ten).
PRONOUNS
55
PRONOUNS AND ADVERBS.
Indefinite (2).
aliquis, some one.
alteruter, one or other
of two.
aliquantus, some (in
quantity).
aliquot, some (in num-
ber).
alicubi, somewhere.
alicunde, from some
quarter.
aliquo, somewhither.
aliqua, by some way.
aliquando, at some time.
aliquotiens, at some (va-
rious) times.
Distributive.
quisque, each.
uterque, each of two.
ubique, everywliere.
undique, from every
side.
Universal Relative.
quicumque, wlwever,
whatever.
utercumque, whichever
of two.
qualiscumque, of what
kind soever.
quantuscumque, however
great.
quotcumque, Iwwever
many.
ubicumque, whereso-
ever.
undecumque, wliencesO'
ever.
quocumque, whitJierso-
ever.
quacumque, by whatso-
ever way.
quandocumque, wlienso-
ever.
quotienscumqaejiowever
often.
VERBS
VERBS.
The Verb has :
The Three Persons — First, Second, Third. '
The Two Numbers — Singular and Plural.
Six Tenses :
(1) Present, (2) Future Simple, (3) Past
Imperfect, (4) Perfect or Aorist, ^
(5) Future Perfect, (6) Pluperfect.
Three Moods :
(1) Indicative, (2) Imperative, ^8) Con-
junctive.
The Verb
The Infinitive (Verbal Substantive). >
Three Participles (Verbal Adjectives).
The Gerund and Gerundive (Verbal Substantive • The Verb
and Adjective). Infinite.
Two Supines (Verbal Substantives).
Two Voices :
(1) Active, (2) Passive.
The Verb Finite is so called because it is limited by Mood
and Persons ; while the Verb Infinite is not so limited.
104 PERSON AND NUMBER.
In English, Pronouns are used with Verbs to express the
three Persons Singular and Plural : I am, We are. But in
Latin the Pronouns are expressed by the personal suffixes.
su-m, J am, am-o, I love. su-mus, we are.
e-s, thou art (you are}. es-tis, ye are.
es-t, Tie (sJie, it) is. su-nt, they are.
VERBS
57
TABLE OF PERSONAL ENDINGS IN THE INDICATIVE AND CONJUNCTIVE MOODS.
Singular 1
2
3
ACTIVE VOICE.
PASSIVE VOICE.
-m or -6
-s
-t
-r
-rls or -re
-tur
Plural 1
2
3
-mus
-tis
-nt
-nmr
-mini
-ntiir
The Imperative Mood has only the Second and Third Person
Singular and Plural, not the First.
105 TENSES.
Tenses express the time of the action or state denoted by the
Verb, as being :
(1) Present, Past, or Future ;
(2) Complete or Incomplete ;
(3) Momentary or Continuous.
In English, by means of auxiliary Verbs, differences of time
can be more accurately expressed than in Latin ; so that one
tense in Latin may correspond to two tenses in English, of which
one is momentary, the other continuous. Thus, rogo, I ask, has
the following tenses :
Present
Perfect
incomplete
complete
rogo
rogavi
^ Fut. Simple incomplete
-*5
£ I Fut. Perf. complete
spJSJ ™°^>°
0-1 (Pluperf. complete
rogavero
( rogavi
( rogabam
{I ask
I / am asking
I have asked
I have been asking
I shall ask
I shall be asking
I shall have asked
I shall have been
asking
I asked
I was asking
{ I had asked
\Ihad been asking
Note. — Latin has no separate tenses corresponding to the Greek
Aorist and Perfect ; therefore the Perfect has to fill the place of two
Tenses : the Aorist, I loved, and the Perfect, I liave loved.
5» VERBS
The Present, the Future Simple, and the Future Perfect are
called Primary Tenses.
The Imperfect and the Pluperfect are called Historic Tenses.
The Perfect in the sense of I have loved is Primary ; in the
sense of I loved it is Historic.
106 MOOD.
Moods are the forms in which the idea contained in the Verb
is presented.
The Indicative is the mood which states a fact : amo,
I love.
The Imperative is the mood of command : ama, love thou.
Note. — The forms of the Imperative in -to, -tote, are emphatic,
and were used anciently in laws.
The Conjunctive is the mood which represents something as
thought of or as dependent : ut amem, that I may love ; si ama-
rein, if I were to love.
Note. — In the Paradigms the tenses of the Conjunctive are given
without any English translation, because their meaning varies so
much according to the context that it is impossible to convey it by
any one rendering.
VERBS 59
107 THE VERB INFINITE.
The Infinitive is a Verb Noun expressing action or state in
general, without limit of person or number : amare, to love.
The Gerund is a Verbal Substantive declined like neuters of
the Second Declension It supplies Cases to the Infinitive :
as amandi, of loving.
The Gerundive is a Participle, or Verbal Adjective:
amandus, a, urn, meet to be loved.
The Supines are Cases of a Verbal Substantive : amatum, in
order to love ; amatu, for or in loving.
The Participles are so called because they have partly the
properties of Verbs and partly those of Adjectives ; there are
three besides the Gerundive :
(a) Act. Pres. amans, loving (declined like ingens).
(b) Act. Fut. amaturus, about to love] (declined like
(c) Pass. Perf. amatus, loved ) bonus).
Note. — The three Participles wanting are : (a) Active Perfect,
(b) Passive Present, (c) Passive Future.
108 VOICE.
The Active Voice expresses what the Subject of a Verb is or
does :
sum, I am ; valeo, I am well ; amo, I love ; rego, I rule.
The Passive Voice expresses what is done to the Subject of
the Verb :
amor, I am loved ; regor, I am ruled.
109 Deponent Verbs are Verbs which have chiefly the forms of
the Passive Voice with the meaning of the Active Voice.
110 Verbs in the Active Voice and Deponent Verbs are,
(a) Transitive (transire, pass over], acting on an object:
amo eum, I love him ; hortor vos, I exhort you.
(b) Intransitive, not acting on an object : sto, I stand ;
loquor, I speak.
Only Transitive Verbs have the full Passive Voice.
60 VERBS
111 THE CONJUGATIONS.
Verbs are generally arranged according to the Character of
the Present Stem in four Conjugations.
The Character is most clearly seen before the suffix -re (or
-ere) of the Infinitive Present Active. It is either one of the
vowels a, e, i, u, or a Consonant.
First Conjugation, A- Stems.
Second Conjugation, E- Stems.
Third Conjugation, Consonant and IT- Stems.
Fourth Conjugation, I- Stems.
Deponent Verbs are also divided into four Conjugations with
the same Stem endings.
112 The following forms must be known in order to give the full Conjugation.
A- Stems. E- Stems. ^^terns. L Stem8'
Active Voice.
1 Pers. Pres. Indie, amo m6neo rego audio
Infin. Pres. amarS monere' regere" audlre
Perfect. amavi monul rexl audlv!
Supine in -um. amatum monitum rectum auditum
Passive Voice.
1 Pers. Pres. Indie, amor moneor regor audior
Infin. Pres. amari moneri regi audlrl
Partic. Perf. amatus monitus rectus audltus
Gerundive amandus monendus regendus audiendua
VERBS 6r
113 In the Perfects -avi, -evi, -ovi, v sometimes drops out before
-is or -er, and contraction follows : amavisti becomes amasti,
amaverunt amarunt, amavissem amassem. In I- Stems there is
no contraction : audlvi becomes audii, audiverunt audierunt.
(See 14.)
For -erunt (3rd pers. pi. Perf. Act.), -ere is often written .
amavere, implevere, audlvere ; but these forms are not con-
tracted.
The 2nd pers. sing, in the Passive ends in -ris or -re :
amabaris, amabare ; but in Pres. Indie, the ending in -re is
rare.
Note. — An old form in -ier of the Pres. Infin. Passive is some-
times found in poetry : amarier for amari.
Poets sometimes use old forms in the Future of I- Stems ; as
audlbo, audlbor, for audiam, audiar.
The Gerundive sometimes ends in -undus in Consonant and
I- Stems.
PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION.
The Active Future Participle and the Gerundive may be
used with all the Tenses of the Verb sum :
amaturus, -a sum, I am about to love.
amaturus, -a es, thou art about to love.
amaturus, -a est, Tie (she) is about to love,
amaturi, -ae sumus, we are about to love.
etc.
amandus, -a sum, I am meet to be loved.
etc.
In the same way the Participle futurus may be used with the
tenses of sum : futurus sum, I am about to be.
The Active Future Participle with fuisse forms an Imperfect
Future Infinitive, which is only used conditionally : amaturus
fuisse, to have been about to love.
62
VERBS
115
*The Verb Sum, I am
This verb is formed from two roots, 6s, to be, and f&, to be or
the Perfect and Participial Stems from the root ftt. In the tense forms
TENSE.
INDICATIVE.
sum,
I am.
es,
thou art.
Present.
est,
Tie is.
Burnus,
we are.
estis,
ye are.
sunt,
they are.
ero,
I shall be.
eris,
thou wilt be.
Future Simple.
erit,
erimus,
he will be.
we shall be.
eritis,
ye will be.
erunt,
they will be.
eram,
I was.
eras,
thou wast.
Imperfect.
erat,
eramus,
lie was.
we were.
eratis,
ye were.
erant,
they were.
fui,
I have been or I was.
fuisti,
thou hast been or thou wast.
Perfect.
fuit,
fuimus,
he has been or he was.
we have been or we were.
fuistis,
ye have been or ye were.
fuerunt,
they have been or they were.
fuero,
I shall have been.
fuens,
thou wilt have been.
Future Perfect.
fuerit,
fuerimus,
he will have been,
we shall have been.
fueritis,
ye will have been.
fuerint,
they will have been.
fueram,
I had been.
fueras,
thou hadst been.
Pluperfect.
fuerat,
fueramus,
he had been,
ive had been.
fueratis,
ye had been.
fuerant,
they had been.
* Before the regular Verbs it is necessary to conjugate the
as an auxiliary in the conjugation of other Verbs.
VERBS
(sum, fui, esse, futurus).
become. The Present Stein is formed from the root £s-.
es- sometimes drops e : sum, sumus ; sometimes s changes to r : erani.
CONJUNCTIVE.
IMPERATIVE.
sim
sis
Bit
slums
SltlS
sint
es, esto, be thou.
esto, let him be.
este, estate, be ye.
sunto, let them be.
THE VERB INFINITE.
Infinitives.
£epSerf>-.'°fe-
Perfect ) ,. • - , 7
PI erf | misse, to have been.
Future jgf "us es8*}to be about to be.
Participles.
Present (none).
Future futurus, about to be.
Gerunds and Supines.
(None.)
essem or forem
esses or fores
esset or foret
essemus
essetis
essent or forent
fuerim
raeris
fuerjt
fuerimus
fueritis
fuerint
ciple of sum. It is only seen in the
compounds, ab-sens, prae-sens.
Like Sum are conjugated its com-
pounds: absum, am absent; adsum, am
present ; dcsum, am wanting ; insum,
am in or among ; intersum, am among ;
obsum, hinder; praesum, am set over;
prOsum, am of use ; subsum, am under ;
supersum, survive. In prosum the final
d of the old preposition is kept before e :
prodes.
fuissem
fuisses
fuisset
fuissemus
fuissetis
fuissent
irregular Verb of Being, sum, lam, esse, to be, because it is used
64
VERBS
FIEST CONJUGATION
ACTIVE
TENSE.
INDICATIVE.
Present
amo,
amas,
amat,
amamiis,
amatis,
amant,
I love or am loving,
thou lovest or art loving,
he loves or is loving,
we love or are loving,
ye love or are loving,
they love or are loving.
Future Simple.
amabo,
amabis,
amabit,
amabimus,
amabitis,
amabunt,
I shall love,
thou loilt love,
he will love,
we shall love,
ye will love,
they will love.
Imperfect.
amabam,
amabas,
amabat,
amabamus,
amabatis,
amabant,
I was loving or I loved,
thou ivast loving or thou lovedst.
he was loving or he loved,
we were loving or we loved,
ye were loving or ye loved,
they were loving or they loved.
Perfect.
amavi,
amavisti,
amavit,
amavimus,
amavistis,
amaverunt,
I have loved or I loved,
thou hast loved or thou lovedst.
he has loved or he loved,
we have loved or we loved,
ye have loved or ye loved,
they have loved or they loved.
Future Perfect.
amaverp,
amaveris,
amaverit,
amaverimiis,
amaveritis,
amaverint,
I shall have loved,
thou wilt have loved,
he will have loved,
we shall have loved,
ye will have loved,
they will have loved.
Pluperfect.
amaveram,
amaveras,
amaverat,
amaveramiis,
amaveratis,
amaverant.
I had loved,
thou hadst loved,
he had loved,
we had loved,
ye had loved,
they had loved.
A- STEMS.
VOICE.
VERBS
CONJUNCTIVE.
amem
ames
amet
amemus
ametis
ament
amarem
amares
amaret
amaremus
amaretis
amarent
amaverim
amaveris
amaverit
amaverimus
amaveritis
amaverint
amavissem
amavisses
amavisset
amavissemus
amavissetis
amavissent
IMPERATIVE.
ama, amato, love thou.
amato, let him love.
amate, amatote, love ye.
amanto, let them love.
THE VERB INFINITE.
Infinitives.
Present • . - , 7
Imperf. I amare' to love'
Perfect \ . • « , -, ,
PI erf | amavisse, to have loved.
Future amaturus esse, to be about to love.
Gerunds.
Nom. Ace. amandum, the loving.
Gen. amandl, of loving.
Dat. Abl. amando, for or by loving.
Supines.
amatum, in order to love.
amatu, in or for loving.
Participles.
Pres. amans, loving.
Fut. amaturus, about to love.
66
VERBS
117
SECOND CONJUGATION
ACTIVE
TENSE.
INDICATIVE.
moneo,
I advise or am advising.
mones,
thou advisest or art advising.
monet,
he advises or is advising.
Present.
monemus,
we advise or are advising.
monetis,
ye advise or are advising.
monent,
they advise or are advising.
monebo,
I sliall advise.
monebis,
thou wilt advise.
Future Simple.
rnonebit,
monebimus,
he will advise,
we shall advise.
monebitis,
ye will advise.
monebunt,
they tvill advise.
monebam,
I was advising or I advised.
monebas,
thou wast advising or thou advisedst.
Imperfect.
monebat,
monebamus,
he was advising or he advised,
we were advising or we advised.
monebatis,
ye were advising or ye advised.
monebant,
they were advising or they advised.
monui,
I have advised or I advised.
monuisti,
thou hast advised or thou advisedst.
monuit,
he has advised or he advised.
Perfect,
monuimus,
we have advised or we advised.
monuistis,
ye have advised or ye advised.
monuerunt,
they have advised or they advised.
monuero,
I shall have advised.
monueris,
thou wilt have advised.
Future Perfect.
monuerit,
monuerimiis,
he will have advised.
we shall have advised.
monueritis,
ye will have advised.
monuerint,
they will have advised.
monueram,
I had advised.
monueras,
thou hadst advised.
monuerat,
he had advised.
Pluperfect.
monueramus,
we had advised.
monueriltis,
ye had advised.
moniierant,
they had advised.
VERBS
67
E- STEMS.
VOICE.
CONJUNCTIVE.
IMPERATIVE.
monearn
moneas
moneat
moneain us
moneatls
moneant
mone, 'moneto, advise thou.
moneto, let him advise.
monete, monetote, advise ye.
monento, let them advise.
THE VERB INFINITE.
Infinitives.
sen,. j- monere, to advise.
pfr e°f 1 nionuisse, to have advised.
Future monituriis esse, to be about to advise.
Gerunds.
Nona. Ace. monendum, the advising.
Gen. monendi, of advising.
Dat. Abl. monendo, for or by advising.
Supines.
momtum, in order to advise.
momtu, in or for advising.
Participles.
Pres. monens, advising.
Fut. momturus, about to advis«.
monerem
moneres
monerct
moneremus
monerctis
monerent
monuerim
raonuerls
monuerit
monuerimus
monueritis
monuerint
monuissein
monuissos
monuisset
monuissemiis
monuissetis
monuissent
T 2
68
VERBS
118
THIRD CONJUGATION
ACTIVE
TENSE.
INDICATIVE.
rego
I rule or am ruling.
regis,
thou rulest or art ruling.
Present.
regit,
regimus,
he rules or is ruling,
we rule or are ruling.
regitis,
ye rule or are ruling.
regunt,
they rule or are ruling.
regam,
I shall rule.
reges,
thou wilt rule.
Future Simple.
reget,
regemus,
he will rule,
we shall rule.
regetis,
ye will rule.
regent,
they will rule.
regebam,
I was ruling or I ruled.
regebas,
thou wast ruling or thou ruledst.
Imperfect.
regebat,
regebamus,
he was ruling or he ruled,
we were ruling or we ruled.
regebatis,
ye were ruling or ye ruled.
regebant,
they were ruling or they ruled.
rexi,
I have ruled or / ruled.
rexisti,
thou hast ruled or thou ruledst.
Pprfp<»t
rexit,
he has ruled or he ruled.
i crici/u.
reximus,
we have ruled or we ruled.
rexistis,
ye have ruled or ye ruled.
rexerunt,
they have ruled or they ruled.
rexero,
I shall have ruled.
rexeris,
thou wilt have ruled.
Future Perfect.
rexerit,
rexerimiis,
he ivill have ruled,
we shall have ruled.
rexeritis,
ye will have ruled.
rexerint,
they will have ruled.
rexeram,
I had ruled.
rexeras,
thou hadst ruled.
Pluperfect.
rexerat,
rexeramus,
he had ruled,
we had ruled.
rexeratis,
ye had ruled.
rexerant,
they had ruled.
Note. — Facio, dico, duco. and the compounds of duco, in the 2nd person
VERBS
69
CONSONANT STEMS.
VOICE.
CONJUNCTIVE.
IMPERATIVE.
regain
regas
regat
regamus
regatis
regant
rege, regito, rule thou.
regito, let him rule.
regite, regitote, rule ye.
regunto, let tJiem rule.
THE VERB INFINITE.
Infinitives.
£?$} "8^ *»•!*• *
pSperf } rexissg' to have ruled'
Future recturiis ease, to be about to rule.
Gerunds.
Nom. Ace. regendum, the ruling.
Gen. regendi, of ruling.
Dat. Abl. regendo, for or by ruling.
Supines,
rectum, in order to rule.
rectu, in or for ruling.
Participles.
Present regens, ruling.
Future recturus, about to rule.
regerem
regeres
regeret
regeremus
regeretis
regerent
rexerim
rexerls
rexerit
rt^erimus
rexeritia
rexerint
rexissem
rexisses
rexisset
rexissemiis
rexissetis
rexissent
of the Pres. Imperative make fac, die, dtic, &c.
70
VERBS
L19
FOUETH CONJUGATION
ACTIVE
TENSE.
INDICATIVE.
audio,
I hear or am Clearing.
audis,
thou hearest or art hearing.
Present.
audit,
he hears or is hearing.
audimiis,
we hear or are hearing.
auditis,
ye hear or are hearing.
audiunt,
they hear or are hearing.
audiam,
I shall hear
audies,
thou ivilt hear.
Future Simple.
audiet,
audiernus,
he will hear,
we shall hear.
audietis,
ye will hear.
audient,
they will hear.
•
. audiebam,
I was hearing or I heard.
audiebas,
thou wast hearing or heardest.
Imperfect.
audiebat,
audiebamiis,
he was hearing or he heard,
we were hearing or we heard.
audiebatis,
ye were hearing or ye heard.
audiebant,
they were hearing or they heard.
audivi,
I have heard or I heard.
audivisti,
thou hast heard or thou heardest.
Pprfpr»t.
audivit,
he has heard or he heard.
JL 1 L iv C li»
audlvimiis,
we have heard or we heard.
audivistis,
ye have heard or ye heard.
audiverunt,
they have heard or they heard.
audivero,
I shall have heard.
audlverjs,
thou wilt have heard.
Future Perfect
audlverit,
audiverimus,
he will have heard,
we shall have heard.
audiveritis,
ye will have heard.
audiverint,
they will have heard.
audlveram,
I had heard.
audiveras,
thou hadst heard.
Pluperfect.
audiverat,
audiverarnus,
he had heard,
we had heard.
audlveratis,
ye had heard.
audiverant,
they had heard.
VERBS
I- STEMS.
VOICE.
CONJUNCTIVE.
IMPERATIVE.
audiam
audias
audiat
audiamus
audiatis
audiant
audirem
audlres
audlrot
audiremus
audiretis
audirent
audlverim
audiveris
audiverit
audiverimus
audiveritis
aiidiverint
audlvissem
audivisses
audivisset
audivissemus
audivissetis
audivissent
audi, audito, hear thou.
audito, let Mm hear.
audite, audltote, hear ye.
audiunto, let them hear.
THE VERB INFINITE.
Infinitives.
Present) ,- , ,
Imperil ™&™> *o hear.
pi £ I audivisse, to have Jieard.
Future auditiirus ease, to be about to hear.
Gerunds.
Nom. Ace. audiendum, the hearing.
Gen. audiendl, of hearing.
Dat. Abl. audiendo, for or by hearing.
Supines.
audltum, in order to hear.
auditu, in or for hearing.
Participles.
Present cudiens, hearing.
Future audituriis, about to hear.
VERBS
120
FIRST CONJUGATION
PASSIVE
TENSE.
INDICATIVE.
Present.
amor,
amaris,
amatur,
aniamur,
amamini,
amantiir,
I am or I am being loved,
thou art or thou art being loved,
he is or he is being loved,
we are or we are being loved,
ye are or ye are being loved,
they are or they are being loved.
Future
Simple.
amabor,
amaberis,
amabitur,
amabimur,
ainabimini,
amabuntur,
I shall be loved,
thou wilt be loved,
he ivill be loved,
we shall be loved,
ye will be loved,
they will be loved.
Imperfect.
amabar,
amabaris,
amabatur,
amabamur,
amabamini,
amabantur,
I was being or I was loved,
thou wast being or thou wast loved,
he was being or he was loved,
we were being or ive were loved,
ye were being or ye were loved,
they were being or they were loved.
Perfect.
amatus sum,
arnatus es,
amatus est,
amati suimis,
amatl estis,
amati sunt,
I have been or I was loved,
thou hast been or thou wast loved,
he has been or he was loved,
we have been or we were loved,
ye have been or ye were loved,
they have been or they were loved.
Future
Perfect.
amatus ero,
amatus eris,
amatiis erit,
amatl erimus,
amatl eritis,
amatl erunt,
I shall have been loved,
thou wilt have been loved,
he will have been loved,
we shall have been loved,
ye will have been loved,
they will have been loved.
Pluperfect.
amatus eram,
amatus eras,
amatus erat,
amati eramiis,
amati eratis,
amatl erant,
I had been loved,
thou hadst been loved,
he had been loved,
we had been loved,
ye had been loved,
they had been loved.
VERBS
73
A- STEMS.
VOICE.
CONJUNCTIVE.
IMPERATIVE.
amer
ameris
ametur
amemur
amemml
amentiir
amarer
arnareris
amaretur
amaremiir
amareminl
amarentur
amatus sim
amatus sis
amatus sit
amati simus
amati sltis
amati sint
amatus essem
amatus esses
amatus esset
amati essemiis
amati essetis
amati essent
amare, amator, be thou loved.
amator, let him be loved.
amaminl, be ye loved.
amantor, let them be loved.
Present
Imperf. •,
Perfect
THE VEBB INFINITE.
Infinitives,
amari, to be loved.
amatus esse, to have been loved.
Pluperf. i
Future amatum iri. (See 387).
Participle.
Perfect amatus, loved, or having been loved,
Gerundive,
amandus, meet to be loved.
74
VERBS
121
SECOND CONJUGATION
PASSIVE
TENSE.
INDICATIVE.
Present.
moneor,
moneris,
monetiir,
monemur,
monemini
monentur,
I am or I am being advised,
thou art or thou art being advised,
he is or he is being advised,
we are or we are being advised,
ye are or ye are being advised,
they are or they are being advised.
Future
Simple.
monebor,
moneberis,
monebitur,
monebimiir,
monebimini,
monebuntur,
I shall be advised,
thou wilt be advised,
he will be advised,
we shall be advised,
ye will be advised,
they will be advised.
Imperf.
monebar,
monebaris,
monebatur,
naonebamur,
monebamini,
monebantur,
I was being or I was advised,
thou wast being or thou wast advised,
he was being or he was advised,
we were being or we were advised,
ye were being or ye were advised,
they were being or they were advised.
Perfect.
monitiis sum
monltus es,
monitiis est,
moniti sumiis,
moniti estis,
monitl sunt,
I have been or I was advised,
thou hast been or thou wast advised,
he has been or he was advised,
we have been or we were advised,
ye have been or ye were advised,
they have been or they were advised.
Future
Perfect.
monitus ero,
monitiis eris,
monitiis erit,
moniti erimiis,
moniti eritis,
moniti erunt.
I shall have been advised,
thou wilt have been advised,
he will have been advised,
we shall have been advised,
ye will have been advised,
they will have been advised.
Pluperf.
raonitus eram,
monitus eras,
monitiis erat,
moniti eramus,
moniti eratis,
moniti erant,
I had been advised,
thou hadst been advised,
he had been advised,
we had been advised,
ye had been advised,
they had been advised.
VERBS
75
E- STEMS.
VOICE.
CONJUNCTIVE.
IMPERATIVE.
monear
monearis
moneatur
moneamur
moneaniim
moneantiir
monerer
monereris
moneretiir
moneremiir
moneremini
monerentiir
monitiis sim
monitiis sis
monitiis sit
moniti simus
moniti sitis
moniti sint
monitiis essem
monitiis esses
monitus esset
moniti essemiis
moniti essetis
moniti essent
monere, monetor, "be thou advised.
monetor, let him be advised.
monemini, be ye advised.
monentor, let them be advised.
THE VERB INFINITE.
Infinitives.
Present > - - , , , . ,
Ii erf I moneri, to be advised.
pi r I monitus esse, to have been advised.
Future monitum iri. (See 387.)
Participle.
Perfect monitiis, advised, or having been
advised.
Gerundive,
monendiis, meet to be advised.
VERBS
122
THIRD CONJUGATION
PASSIVE
TENSE.
INDICATIVE.
Present.
regor,
regeris,
regitiir,
regimur,
regimini,
reguntur,
I am or I am being ruled,
thou art or thou art being ruled,
he is or he is being ruled,
we are or we are being ruled,
ye are or ye are being ruled,
they are or they are being ruled.
Future
Simple.
regar,
regeris,
regetur,
regemiir,
regemini,
regentur,
I shall be ruled,
thou wilt be ruled,
he will be ruled,
we shall be ruled,
ye will be ruled,
they will be ruled.
Imperfect.
regebar,
regebaris,
regebatur,
regebamur,
regebamini,
regebantui,
I was being or I was ruled,
thou wast being or thou ivast ruled,
he was being or he was ruled,
we were being or we were ruled,
ye were being or ye were ruled,
they were being or they were ruled.
Perfect.
rectiis sum,
recttis es,
rectiis est,
recti sumus,
recti estis,
recti sunt,
I have been or I was ruled,
thou hast been or thou wast ruled,
he has been or he was ruled,
we have been or we were ruled,
ye have been or ye were ruled,
they have been or they were ruled.
Future
Perfect.
rectiis ero,
rectiis eris,
rectiis erit,
recti erimiis,
recti eritis,
recti erunt,
I shall have been ruled,
thou wilt have been ruled,
he will have been ruled,
we shall have been ruled,
ye will have been ruled,
they will have been ruled.
Pluperfect.
rectiis eram,
rectiis eras,
rectiis erat,
recti eramiis,
recti eratis,
recti erant,
I had been ruled,
thou hadst been ruled,
he had been ruled,
we had been ruled,
ye had been ruled,
they had been ruled.
VERBS
77
CONSONANT STEMS
VOICE.
CONJUNCTIVE.
IMPERATIVE.
regar
regaris
regatur
regamur
regamini
regantur
regere, regitor, be thou ruled.
regitor, let him be ruled.
regimini, be ye ruled.
reguntor, let them be ruled.
regerer
regereris
regeretiir
regeremur
regeremini
regerentur
THE VERB INFINITE/
Infinitives.
rectus sim
rectus sis
rectus sit
Present t
rectl simus
Imperf. > r^&' *° be ru^e^"
recti sitis
recti sint
Perfect ) .<• - . i_ *
Pluoerf > rec*us esse> *" 'iave been ruled.
Future rectum iri. (See 387.)
Participle.
Perfect rectus, ruled, or hewing been ruled.
Gerundive,
regendiis, meet to be ruled.
rectus essem
rectus esses
rectus esset
recti essemus
recti essetis
rectl essent
VERBS
123
FOURTH CONJUGATION
PASSIVE
TENSE.
INDICATIVE.
Present.
audior,
audiris,
auditor,
audimiir,
audimini,
audiuntiir,
I am or I am b eing heard,
thou art or thou art being Jieard.
he is or lie is being heard,
we are or we are being heard,
ye are or ye are being heard,
they are or they are being heard.
Future
Simple.
audiar,
audieris,
audietur,
audiemiir,
audiemml,
audientiir,
I shall be heard,
thou wilt be heard,
he will be heard,
we shall be heard,
ye will be heard,
they will be heard.
Imperf.
audiebar,
audiebaris,
audiebatiir,
audiebamur,
audiebamini,
audiebantur,
I was being or I was heard,
thou ivast being or thou ivast heard,
he was being or he was heard,
we were being or we were heard,
ye were being or ye were heard,
they were being or they were heard.
Perfect.
auditus sum,
auditiis es,
auditus est,
audit! sumus,
audit! estis,
audit! sunt,
I have been or I was heard,
thou hast been or thou wast heard,
he has been or he was heard,
we have been or we were heard,
ye have been or ye were heard,
they have been or tJiey were Jieard.
Future
Perfect
auditus ero,
auditus eris,
auditus erit,
auditl erirnus,
auditl eritis,
auditl erunt,
I shall have been heard,
thou wilt have been heard,
he will have been heard,
we sJiall have been heard,
ye will have been Jieard.
they will have been Jieard.
Pluperf.
auditus eram,
auditus eras,
auditus erat,
audit! eramiis,
audit! eratis,
auditl erant,
I had been Jieard.
thou hadst been heard,
he had been heard,
we had been heard,
ye had been heard,
they had been heard.
VERBS
79
I-STEHS.
VOICE.
CONJUNCTIVE.
audiar
audiarls
audiatiir
audiarnur
audiammi
audiantiir
audirer
audirerls
audiretur
audiremiir
audireminl
audirentur
auditus sim
auditiis sis
audltiis sit
audit! sirnus
auditl sitis
audrti sint
auditiis essem
auditus esses
auditiis esset
audit! essemus
audit! essetis
audit! essent
IMPERATIVE.
audire, auditor, be thou heard.
auditor, let him be heard.
audimini, be ye heard.
audiuntor, let them be heard.
Present
Imperf. ]
THE VERB INFINITE.
Infinitives,
audiri, to be heard.
30 c \ auditus esse, to have been heard.
irlupert. '
Future auditum iri. (See 387).
Participle.
Perfect auditus, heard, or having been heard.
Gerundive,
audiendiis, meet to be heard.
8o
VERBS
124
UTOR, UTI, usus, use
DEPONENT VERB, HAVING THE FORMS OF THE PASSIVE
TENSE.
INDICATIVE.
utor,
I use.
uteris,
thou usest.
Present.
utitur,
he uses.
utimiir,
we use.
utimini,
ye use.
utuntur,
they use.
utar,
I shall use.
uteris,
thou wilt use.
Future Simple.
utetiir,
utemur,
he will use.
we shall use.
utemini,
ye will use.
utentiir,
they will use.
utebar,
1 was using or I used.
utebaris,
thou wast using or thou didst use.
Imperfect.
utebatur,
utebamur,
he was using or he used,
we were using or we used.
utebamini,
ye were using or ye used.
utebantiir,
they were using or they used.
usus sum,
I have used or I used.
usus es,
thou hast used or thou didst use.
Perfect.
usus est,
us! sumus,
he has used or he used,
we have used or we used.
usl estis,
ye have used or ye used.
usi sunt,
they have used or they used.
usus ero,
I shall have used.
usus eris,
thou wilt have used.
Future Perfect
usus erit,
usl erimiis,
he will have used,
we shall have used.
usi eritis,
ye will have used.
usl erunt,
they will have used.
usiis eram,
I had used.
usiis eras,
thou hadst used.
Pluperfect.
usus erat,
usi eramiis,
he had used,
we had used.
usi eratis,
ye had used.
usl erant,
they had used.
Deponent Verbs have Gerunds, Supines. Present and Future Participles
VERBS
8l
(THIRD CONJUGATION).
VOICE, WITH THE MEANING OF THE ACTIVE.
CONJUNCTIVE.
IMPERATIVE.
iitar
utaris
utatiir
utamur
utammi
utantur
uterer
utereris
uteretur
uteremiir
uteremini
uterentiir
usiis aim
usiis sis
usiis sit
usi simiis
usi sitis
usi sint
UBUS essem
usiis esses
usiis esset
usi essemus
usi essetis
usi essent
utere, utitor, use thou.
utitor, let him use.
utimini, use ye.
utuntor, let them use.
THE VERB INFINITE.
Infinitives.
TiCDCT[ uti, to use.
Imperf. >
Perfect )
usiis esse, to have used.
Pluperf. )
Future usurus esse, to be about to use.
Gerunds.
Nom. Ace. utendum, using.
Gen. utendi, of using.
Dat. Abl. utendo, for or by using.
Supines,
usum, to use.
usu, in or for using.
Participles.
Present utens, using.
Future usurus, about to use.
Perfect usiis, having used
Gerundive,
utendiis, meet to be usel*
Active ; their Perfect Participles have the meaning of the Active Voice.
G
VERBS
125
DEPONENT VERBS of the four Conjugations.
Venor venatus arum veaari, hunt.
Vereor *eritus sum vereri fear.
TTtor usus sum uti, use.
Partior partitus sum partiri, divide
INDICATIVE.
TENSE
1st CONJ.
2nd CONJ. 3rd CONJ.
4th CONJ.
Pres.
Fut. S.
Imperf.
Perf.
Fut. Perf.
Pluperf.
venor
venaris (re^
venabor
venabar
venatus sum
venatus ero
venatus eram
vereor utor
vereris (re) uteris (re)
verebor utar
verebar utebar
veritus sum usus sum
veritus ero usus ero
veritus eram usus eram
partior
partiris (ire)
partiar
partiebar
partitus sum
partitus ero
partitus eram
CONJUNCTIVE.
Pres.
Imperf.
Perf.
Pluperf.
vener
venarer
venatus sim
venatus essem
verear utar
vererer uterer
veritus sim usus sim
veritus essem usus essem
partiar
partlrer
partitus sim
partitus essem
IMPERATIVE.
venare
venator
verere utere
veretor utltor
partire
partltor
THE VERB INFINITE.
Pres. & I
Imp.'
Pert. &\
PI up. f
Put.
venari
venatus esse
venaturus esse
Infinitives.
vereri uti
veritus esse usus esse
veriturus esse usurus esse
partiri
partitus esse
partlturus esse
Participles.
Pres.
Fut.
Perf.
venans
venaturus
venatus
verens utens
veriturus usurus
veritus usus
partiens
partlturus
partitus
Gerundive.
venandus
verendus utendus
partiendus
Gerunds.
venandum, -i, -o verendum, -i, -o utenduin, -i,
-o partiendum, -i, -o
Supines.
in -urn
in -u
venatum
venatu
veritum usum
verltu usu
partltnm
partltu
Note. — Some Deponents have an Active form also : punior and
piinio, punish.
VERBS 83
126 Many Perf. Participles of Deponent Verbs are used passively
as well as actively : as confessus from confiteor, confess ;
imitatus from imitor, imitate ; meritus from me'reor, deserve ;
pollicitus from polliceor, promise.
127 Some Verbs have a Perfect of Passive form with a Present
of Active form ; they are called Semi-deponents :
audeo, dare ausus sum, I have dared or J dared.
gaudeo, rejoice gavlsus sum, J have rejoiced or J rejoiced.
soleo, am wont solltus sum, J liave been wont or I was wont.
fldo, trust fisus sum, I have trusted or I trusted.
128 Some Verbs have an Active form with Passive meaning ; they
are called Quasi-Passive :
exulo, am banished. liceo, am put up for sale.
vapulo, am beaten. veneo, am on sale.
fio, am made.
129 Some Verbs have Perfect Participles with Active meaning,
like the Deponent Verbs :
juro, swear, juravi, I swore. juratus, having sworn.
ceno, sup. cenavi, I supped. cenatus, having supped.
prandeo, dine. prandi, I dined. pransus, having dined.
130 Inceptive Verbs, with Present Stem in -sco (Third Conjuga-
tion), express beginning of action, and are derived from Verb-
Stems or from Nouns :
pallesco, turn pale, from palleo.
nigresco, turn blade, from niger.
131 Frequentative Verbs (First Conj .) express repeated or intenser
action, and are formed from Supine Stems :
r6gito, ask repeatedly (rogo) ; canto, sing with energy (cano).
132 Desiderative Verbs (Fourth Conj.) express desire of action,
and are formed from the Supine Stem :
esurio, am hungry (e"do, esurus).
o2
84
VERBS
VERBS IN -io (THIKD CONJUGATION).
Forms from Present Stem, cap-i-, take.
ACTIVE VOICE
PASSIVE VOICE
INDIC.
CONJUNC.
INDIC.
CONJUNC.
Present
capio
capis
capit
capimus
capitis
capiunt
capiam
capias
capiat
capiamus
capiatis
capiant
Present
capior
caperis
capitur
capimur
capimini
capiuntur
capiar
capiaris
capiatur
capiamur
capiamini
capiantur
•i
1
DQ
-t5
p
£
capiam
capies
capiet
capiemua
capietis
capient
<D
1
CQ
•4J
3
6
capiar
capieris
capietur
capiemur
capiemini
capientur
«t-5
%
1
M
capiebam
capiebas
capiebat
capiebamus
capiebatis
capiebant
caperem
caperes
caperet
caperemus
caperetis
caperent
«*-!
. ?-i
9
04
a
i— i
capiebar
capiebaris
capiebatur
capiebamur
capiebamini
capiebantur
caperer
capereris
caperetur
caperemur
caperemini
caperemur
Imperative
j|> 2. cape, capito.
•£ 3. capito.
2. capere, capitor.
3. capitor.
fj 2. capite, capitote.
p£ 3. capiunto.
2. capimini.
y. capiuntor.
Infin. Pres. capere,
Gerund. capiendum.
Pres. Partic. capiens.
Infin. Pres. capi.
Gerundive capiendus.
Capio has Perfect cepi ; Supine captum.
The Verbs in -io are :
and their
capio, cupio and facio,
fodio, f ugio and jacio, r d
pano, rapio, sapio, quatio, J
Compounds of specio and lacio |
Deponent : gradior, patior, morior,
And in some tenses, potior, orior,
take, desire, make,
dig, fly, throw,
bring forth, seize, know, sliake.
look at, entice.
step, suffer, die.
get possession of, arise.
IRREGULAR VERBS
IRREGULAR VERBS.
Verbs are called irregular :
(1) Because they are formed from more than one root,
as sum.
(2) Because their tense-forms differ from those of regular
verbs.
Possum, I can, potui, posse.
The Pres. Indie, possum is compounded of sum, I am, and
adjective potis or poti, able.
INDIC.
CONJUNC.
INDIC.
CONJUNC.
Present
possum
potes
potest
possiimus
potestis
possunt
possim
possis
possit
posslinus
possitis
possint
Perfect
potui
potuisti
potuit
potuimus
potuistis
potuerunt
potuerim
potueris
potuerit
potuerimus
potueritis
potuerint
(£,
in
-*3
s
£
potero
poteris
poterit
poterimus
poteritis
poterunt
<<-<
B
£
I
potuero
potueria
potuerit
potuerimus
potueritis
potuerint
t!
I
poteram S possem
poteras posses
poterat posset
poteramus possemus
poteratis possetis
poterant i possent
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t*
9
&
J3
S
potueram
potueras
potuerat
potueramus
potueratis
potuerant
potuissem
potuisses
potuisset
potuissemus
potuissetis
potuissent
Infinitive Pres. and Imperf. posse (pot-esse), Perf. and
Pluperf. potuisse.
Potens is used as an Adjective, powerful, able, never as a Par-
ticiple.
86
VERBS
Fero, bear, ferre, tuli, latum.
ACTIVE VOICE
PASSIVE VOICE
INDIC.
CONJUNC.
INDIC.
CONJUNC.
-ta
PI
<D
•
1
i
CQ
1
fero
fers
fert
ferimus
fertis
ferunt
feram
feras
ferat
feramus
feratis
ferant
Present
feror
ferris
fertur
ferimur
ferimini
feruntur
ferar
feraris
feratur
feramur
feramini
ferantur
feram
feres
feret
feremus
feretis
ferent
r2
"ft
|
OJ
a
P^
1
A
a
M
ferar
fereris
feretur
feremur
feremini
ferentur
t5
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PH
a
i— i
ferebam
fere"bas
ferebat
ferebamus
ferebatis
ferebant
ferrem
ferres
ferret
ferremus
ferretis
ferrent
ferebar
ferebaris
ferobatur
ferebamur
ferebamini
ferebantur
ferrer
ferreris
ferretur
ferremur
ferremini
ferrentur
Imperative
£f 2. fer, ferto.
02 3. ferto.
2. ferre, fertor.
3. fertor.
g 2. ferte, fertote.
ft 3. ferunto.
2. ferimini.
3. feruntor.
Infin. Pres. ferre. Infin. Pres. ferri.
Gerund. ferend-um, -i, -o. Gerundive ferendus.
Pres. Partic. ferens.
The Perfect- Stem forms are regular :
tul-i -ero -eram -erim -issem.
Also the Supine- Stem forms :
flatus
U
latus sum, ero, eram, sim, essem.
Infin. tulisse
flatus esse
Infin.
\ latum iri
IRREGULAR VERBS
Eo (for eio), go, ire, Ivi or ii, itum.
INDIC.
CONJUNC.
IMPERATIVE
Present
eo '
Is
it
Imus
Itis
eunt
earn
eas
eat
eamus
eatis
eant
I, ito.
ito.
Ite, itote.
eunto.
ij»
o<
a
02
1
Ibo
ibis
ibit
ibimus
ibitis
ibunt
THE VERB INFINITIVE.
Infinitives.
Present i -
ImperfJ1
Perfect i • - •
Pluperf.}18se'lvlsse>
Future iturus esse.
Geninds.
Nom. Ace. eundum.
Gen. eundi.
Dat. Abl. eundo.
Supines,
itum.
itu.
Participles.
Pres. lens (Ace. euntem).
Future iturus.
CM
c
a
1
ibam
ibas
ibat
ibamus
ibatis
ibant
irem
ires
iret
iremus
iretis
irent
1
PH
ii or Ivi
lerim
ieris
ierit
ierimus
ieritis
ierint
iisti, ivisti
iit, ivit
iimus, ivimus
iistis, ivistis
ierunt, iverunt
In the Perfect Tense of eo the forms ii, iisti &c. are more
usual than Ivi &c.; also in the compounds redii, rediisti, redisti.
The Impersonal Passive, itur, itum est, is often used.
138 Queo, can, neqneo, cannot, are conjugated like eo in the
forms which are found, but many are wanting ; they have no
Imperative and no Gerunds.
Ambio, go round, canvass, is conjugated like audio.
VERBS
Volo, am willing, wish.
Nolo, am unwilling, do not wish.
Malo, prefer, wish rather.
Nolo is compounded of ne and volo. Malo of magis and volo.
INDICATIVE
IMPERATIVE
Present
volo
vis
vult
volumus
vultis
volant
nolo
nonvis
nonvult
nolumus
nonvultis
nolunt
malo
mavis
mavult
malumus
ma vultis
malunt
noli, nollto
noli to
nollte
nolitote, nolunto
Volo and malo have
no Imperative.
<B
u
1
33
"a
£
volam
voles
volet
volemus
voletis
volent
(nolam)
noles
nolet
nolemus
noletis
nolent
(malam)
males
malet
malemus
maletis
malent
THE VERB INFINITE.
Infinitive.
Present f^
^P^ectj^
Gerunds.
volendum, -i, -o
nolendum, -i, -o
malendum, -i, -o
Supines.
None.
Participles.
1 volens
Present 4 nolens
1
!
volebam
volebas
<fec.
nolebam
nolebas
&c.
malebam
malebas
&c.
CONJUNCTIVE
Present
velim
velis
velit
vellmus
velitis
velint
ndlim
nolis
nolit
nollmus
nolltis
nolint
malim
malis
malit
mallmus
malitis
malint
I
vellem
velles
vellet
vellemus
velletis
vellent
nollem
nolles
nollet
nollemus
nolletis
nollent
mallem
malles
mallet
mallemus
malletis
mallent
The Perfect- Stem forms are regular :
Volu-i -ero
Nolu-i -ero
Malu-i -ero
-eram
-eram
-eram
-enm
-erim
-erim
-issem
-issem
-issem
(voluisse
Infin. j noluisse
I maluisse
IRREGULAR VERBS
89
Edo, 7 eat, esse (for edere), edi, esum.
2nd Pers. S. Pres. Act. es
3rd „
2nd Pers. PI. „
Imperf. Conj.
Imperat. Pres.
Fut.
Inf. Pres.
for ed-i-s.
est for ed-i-t.
estis for ed-i-tis.
essem for ed-e-rem.
este for ed-i-te.
esto, estote for edito, editote.
esse for ed-e-re.
3rd Pers. S. Pres. Pass, estur ed-i-tur.
The other forms of this Verb are regular ; except that edim,
edis, edit, are usually found in the Present Conjunctive.
141 Flo, am made, become, fieri, factus sum.
The Present-Stem tenses of fio supply a Passive to the Active
verb facio, make. The Perfect tenses are borrowed from the
Perfect Passive of facio formed from the Supine- Stem facto-.
INDIC.
CONJUNC.
IMPERATIVE
~a
8
•
B
fio
fis
fit
flam
fias
fiat
fi
fite
I
(fitis)
fiunt
fiatis
fiant
JB
|
OQ
•*5
&
fiam
fies
fiet
fiemua
fietis
fient
THE VERB INFINITE.
Infinitives.
£pr(«--
ftaperfJ fel!tases8e-
1
&
2
i— i
fiebam
fiebas
fiebat
fiebamus
fiebatis
fiebant
fierem
fieres
fieret
ficremus
fieretis
fierent
Future factum iri.
Participle.
Perfect factus.
Gerundive.
1
P,
factus sum, &c.
factus sim, &c.
faciendus.
VERBS
142 DEFECTIVE VEEBS.
Defective Verbs are those of which only some forms are
used.
Coepi, begin j fcave only Perfect- Stem forms ; but the
Memini, remember I Perfect forms are used with Present
Odi, hate j meaning.
Indicative.
Perfect, coepi, I begin.
Fut. Perf. coepero, I shall
begin.
Pluperf. coeperam, I be-
gan.
memini, / remem-
ber.
meminero, I shall
remember.
memineram, I remem-
bered.
odi, I hate.
odero, I shall
hate.
oderam, /
hated.
Conjunctive.
Perfect, coeperim
Pluperf. coepissem
Infin. coepisse, to begin.
Fut. Part, coepturus, about
to begin.
meminerim
meminissem
meminisse
oderim
odissem
odisse
osurus, about
to hate.
Coepi has a participle coeptus. Odi sometimes has osus sum.
Memini has Imperative memento, Plur. mementote.
ififovi (Perf. of nosco) is used with Present meaning, I know.
•»«»
irr
DEFECTIVE VERBS 91
Aio, J say or affirm.
Ind. Pres. aio, ais, ait, aiunt.
Impf. aiebam, aiebas, aiebat, aiebamus, aiebatis, aiebant.
Conj. Pres. — aiat, aiant.
Participle, aiens.
Inquam, I say.
Ind. Pres. inquam, inquis, inquit, inquimus, inquitis, inquiunt.
Impf. — inquiebat - inquiebant
Fut. S. inquies, inquiet
Perf. — inquisti, inquit
Imper. inque inquito
Fari, to speak.
Indie. Pres. faris, fatur.
,, Fut. fabor — fabitur.
Imper. fare, speak thou.
Participles, Pres. Ace. fantem. Perf. fatus.
Gerund. fandi, fando. Gerundive, fandus.
ftuaeso, entreat (an old form of quaero), has first pers.
plur. quaesumus.
The following Imperatives are found :
apage, be gone.
ave (have), avete, hail. Infin. avere, to have a desire.
cedo, cedite (cette), give.
salve, salvete. Infin. salvere, to be well.
Note.— Age, agite, come ; vale, valete, farewell, are used with
special meaning ; but the verbs ago, I do, valeo, I am well, are
fully conjugated.
92 VERBS
143 IMPERSONAL VERBS.
Impersonal Verbs are used only in the forms of the Third
Person Singular of each tense, and do not refer to a Subject in the
Nominative. They have also Infinitive and Gerund (288-295).
144 The principal are the following :
Present. Perfect. Infinitive.
miseret, it moves to pity. (miseruit) (miserere)
piget, it vexes. piguit pigere
paenTtet, it repents. paenituit paenitere
pudet, it shames. puduit pudere
taedet, it wearies. taeduit taedere
decet, it is becoming. decuit decere
dedecet, it is unbecoming. dedecuit dedecere
libet, it pleases. libuit libere
licet, it is lawful. licuit licere
oportet, it behoves. oportuit oportere
Note. 1. — Decet, dedecet have also 3rd. pers.plur., decent, dedecent.
Note 2. — Active Impersonate have no Passive Voice, but some
passive forms are found : misereor, I pity, miseretur ; miseritum
est, pigitum est, puditum est, pertaesum est. Other forms are occa-
sionally found : paenitendus, pudendus.
145 Some Impersonals express change of weather and time :
fulgurat, it lightens. tonat, it thunders.
ningit, it snows. lucescit, it dawns.
phut, it rains. vesperascit, it grows late.
146 Of some Verbs which have all the personal forms, the Third
Person Singular is used impersonally with special meaning :
accedit, it is added. expSdit, it is expedient.
accidit, it happens. fallit, fugit, it escapes one.
apparet, it is evident. interest, it concerns.
attinet, it belongs. juvat, it delights.
constat, it is agreed. pertinet, it pertains.
contingit, it befalls. placet, it seems good.
convSnit, it suits. refert, it matters.
delectat, it charms. restat, it remains.
evSnit, it turns out.
Intransitive Verbs are used impersonally hi the Passive (299).
STEM FORMATION IN VERBS
93
DERIVATION FROM THE THREE TENSE STEMS.
I. From the Present-Stem.
Pres. Indie. Act.
am(a)-o
mone-o
reg-o
audi-o
.» »» Pass.
-or
e-or
-or
-or
,, Conj. Act.
-em
e-am
-am
-am
„ „ Pass.
-er
e-ar
-ar
-ar
Imperf. Indie. Act.
a-bam
e-bam
-ebam
-ebam
„ „ Pass.
a-bar
e-bar
-ebar
-ebar
„ Conj. Act.
a-rem
e-rem
-erem
i-rem
„ „ Pass.
a-rer
e-rer
-erer
i-rer
Fut. Indie. Act.
a-bo
e-bo
-am
i-ain
„ „ Pass.
a-bor
e-bor
-ar
I-ar
Imperative Act.
a
V
-e
i
„ Pass.
a-re
e-re
-ere
I-re
Infin. Pres. Act.
a-re
e-re
-ere
I-re
,, „ Pass.
a-ri
e-ri
-I
i-rl
Partic. Pres. Act.
a-ns
e-ns
-ens
i-ens
Gerund
a-ndo
e-ndo
-endo
i-endo
II. From the Perfect-Stem.
Perfest Indie. Act. amav-I
„ Conj. „ -erim
Fut. Perf. Indie. Act. -ero
Plup. „ „ -eram
„ Conj. „ -issem
Infin. Perf. -isse
III. From the Supine-Stem.
Supine I. amat-um monlt-um rect-um
Infin. Fut. \
Pass. /
Supine II.
Partic. Fut.\
Act. J
Partic. Perf.
Pass.
Perf. Indie. S
Pass. /
Perf. Conj. "I
Pass. /
Fut. Perf. "I
Pass. /
Plup. Ind.1
Pass. /
Plup. Conj.1
Pass. /
Infin. Pass.
monu-I rex-I audlv-I
-erim
-ero
-eram
-erim
-ero
-eram
-erim
-ero
-eram
-issem
-isse
-issem
-isse
-issem
-isse
audit-
-um iri
-u
-urus
-us
-us essem
-us esse
-um Iri
-u
-urus
-us
-us ero
-us eram
-us essem
-us esse
-um in
-u
-urus
-us
-us essem
-us esse
um
-um iri
-u
-urus
-us
-us sum
-us sim
•us ero
-us eram
-us essem
-us esse
94
148 FOBMATION OF THE THEEE STEMS IN VERBS.
The forms of the Latin Verb vary in many respects from those of the
parent and related languages. Both in the Past and in the Future tenses
the Latin has developed new endings of its own, so that the original forms
are only seen in the Present.
The Verbs in the older language were divided into two principal classes :
I. In which the Personal endings were formed by Pronouns joined imme-
diately to the Boot, the tenses being partly formed by changes in the
root vowel.
II. In which the Verb-Stem was formed by a so-called Thematic vowel
added to the root.
Of the first class there are very few remains in Latin, most of the Verbs
which belonged to it having gone over into the second class.
The old ending -m (for -mi) of the First Person Singular is seen in sum,
I am, and in other tenses, as eram, amem. A few Verbs retain part of their
old forms side by side with later forms borrowed from the Thematic Verbs.
These are :
Vowel-ending Stems :
eo, J go ; do, I give ; st5, I stand.
Consonant-ending Stems:
edo, I eat ; fero, I carry ; volo, J will ; nolo, will not ; malo, I prefer.
(For the forms of these Verbs see 115 and 136 to 140.)
PERSONAL ENDINGS IN UNTHEMATIC AND THEMATIC VERBS.
Singular 1
2
3
ACTIVE VOICE.
PASSIVE VOICE.
Unthematic.
Thematic.
-m
-s
-t
-0
-t8(-d)
-r
-ris or -re
-tur
Plural 1
2
3
-mus (-mos)
-tis
-nt
-mus (-mos)
-tis
-unt (-ont)
-mur
-mini
-ntur
The -r of the Passive probably comes from an old form of a third Voice,
called the Middle Voice, which is not preserved in Latin.
STEM FORMA TION IN VERBS 95
PKESENT-STEM FOEMATION.
The Thematic Verbs are divided into six groups according to the
formation of their Present Stems.
I. The Present Stem is the same as the Verb-Stem, being formed by the
addition of the thematic vowel to the Stem-syllable either with or
without lengthening of the Stem-vowel : peto, veho, cedo, fendo,
dlco, fldo, duco, claudo, ago, alo, rudo, etc.
Note. — This class had originally two divisions : (a) with long root
vowel, (b) with short root vowel, but in Latin the distinction between
them is not clear.
II. Eeduplicated Presents. Of this class very few are preserved in Latin :
gigno for gi-g(e)no (genus, race) ; si-sto ; bi-bo.
III. With suffix -to added to the Stem-syllable : plecto, flecto, necto.
IV. Nasalised Stems :
a) with addition of the suffix -no : cerno, sterno, sperno, temno, and
two roots ending in -i : sino, lino. Verbs in -llo, fallo, pello, per-
cello, etc., also belong to this class, -llo standing for older -Ino.
(b) Verbs in which the n is inserted in the Stem-syllable, as plango
(Verb-Stem plag-), jungo, findo, scindo. The n becomes m before
Labials, as in rumpo. In some of these Verbs the Nasal goes
through all the tenses, as in ungo, unxi, unctum. In others it
appears only in the Present Stem, as in frango, fregi, fractum.
A few have the Nasal in the Perfect, but not in the Supine, as
pingo, pinxi, pictum.
V. With suffix -sco. This class also has two divisions :
(a) With the suffix joined immediately to the root-syllable : nosco,
cresco, disco, pasco.
(b) Derivative Verbs in -asco, -esco, -isco, derived from other Verbs or
from Nouns: congelasco, from gelo ; calesco, from caleo; gemisco,
from gemo ; duresco, from durus, etc.
VI. With suffix -io. The Verbs in -io of the 3rd Conj. (Consonant-Stems)
belong to this class. Capio, facio, etc.
It included originally the large number of derivative Verbs with
Vewel-Stems, as amo (for ama-io), moneo (for mone-io) (14).
96 VERBS
150 FORMATION OF THE PERFECT.
The Perfect First Person Sing, ends in -i. When the suffix -i is joined
to the Stem, with or without change in the Stem-syllable, it is called a strong
formation. When the Perfect is formed by adding to the Stem one of the
suffixes -si, -vi, -ui, the formation is called weak.
In some Vowel-Stems, especially in many E- Stems, the final or character
vowel of the Verb-Stem is dropped before the Perfect suffix, and the Stem
is then called the Clipt Stem. This is seen in mon-ui (Stem mone-), man-si,
cav-i, pepend-i, and also in some A- and I- Stems, as dom-ui, sal-ui.
Strong Formation of the Perfect.
I. With Eeduplication. This is the oldest way of forming the Perfect,
and arose from a doubling of the Stem-syllable. In Latin it ia
formed by a vowel (originally e) prefixed to the Stem. When the
Stem begins with a single consonant, this vowel is preceded by the
same consonant : pendo, pependi. When the Stem begins with s,
followed by another consonant (sc, sp, st), the Eeduplicating-syllable
begins with the double consonant, but the Stem-syllable drops the s :
spondeo, spopondi, sto, steti. The e of the Eeduplicating-syllable
is often assimilated to the Stem-vowel, mo-mordi, pupugi, didici
(13). In Compounds it is often dropped, as in rettuli (15). In
many Eeduplicated Perfects, the vowel of the Stem-syllable is
weakened through loss of the accent : cado, cecidi.
I. With Lengthened Stem- Vowel. This formation is seen in two A- Stems :
juvi, lavi ; in a few E- Stems : sedi, vidi, cavi, fovi, etc. ; in Con-
sonant-Stems : vlci, fugi, legi, fudi, etc. ; and in one I- Stem : veni.
A few Consonant-Stems, ago, capio, jacio, frango, and the compounds
of pango (compingo, impingo) form their Perfect with Vowel change
as well as lengthening. In many of these Verbs the Perfect was
originally reduplicated and the vowel was lengthened after loss of
reduplication. The Perfects egi, edi, emi, of ago, edo, emo, are
contractions of an old reduplication (e-ag-, e-ed-, e-em-).
Note. — A few of the above have long vowel in Pres. as well as
Pert. : ico, cudo, sido, viso.
III. With Unchanged Stem-Syllable. This class includes the U- Stems acui,
argui, etc., and a number of Consonant-Stems, as verri, rerti, scandi,
the compounds of -cendo, -fendo, etc., and two E- Verbs, prandi and
stridi.
STEM FORMATION IN VERBS
Weak Formation of the Perfect.
I. The Perfect suffix in -si is joined to the Clipt Stem of many E- and
- Verbs; also to a large number of Consonant-Stems with
which it combines according to the laws of Consonant change.
Thus gs, cs, hs, become ,, as in rexi, pinxi, duxi, vexi. Also qs in
coxi. The guttural drops after 1, r in fulsi, mersi, also in vixi from
,tem gvigv-(compare Old English cwicu, quick). In struxi, flaxi,
the Perfect preserves the guttural sound which is lost in the Present.
>ental sounds are dropped, plausi, flexi ; with lengthening of short
vowels as in mlsi. The labial p remains unchanged, as in sculpsi,
) becomes p, scripsi, nupsi. After m, p is inserted, in sumpsi
Jmpsi ; s remains, as in gessi, ussi, where in the Present it changes to
scomes single after a long vowel or diphthong, as haesi, hausi.
II. The weak Perfect forms in -vi and -ui are peculiar to the Latin language
They were probably formed by analogy from the V- and U- Stems like
favi, acui, and extended to a very large number of Verbs. All the
A- and I- Stems which keep their character vowel throughout the
tenses as amavi, audivi, form their Perfect tense in -vi as well as
many Consonant-Stems. The Perfect in -ui is joined to the Clipt
btems, as mon-ui, also to a few Clipt Stems in A- and E- and
o a large number of Consonant Verbs. This form had a tendency
to spread in later Latin, and many Verbs formed new Perfects in -ui
after the classical period.
^ J THE SUPINE STEM.
The Supine or Participial Stem ends in -to. This suffix is joined to the
•Stem or to the dipt Stem, either immediately or by the vowel i
is joined immediately to the Vowel-Stem, as in most of the A- I-
Stems, the character vowel is lengthened. When it is joined to a
isonant-Stem, the laws of consonant change again come into force ; g
t becomes c ; the guttural is dropped after 1 or r, fultum, tortum •
i inserted between m and t, emptum. In a few Verbs the Stem-vowel
changed, as in lavo, which has besides lavatum a contracted Supine form
lautum. afterwards becoming lotum : in satum (from sero), cultum (from
The Supine in -sum was formed in Dental Stems by a regular change 01
dial -dt-, -tt- to ss ; thus ced-to-, mit-to-, would become cesso-, misso-, and
double s would become single after a long vowel or diphthong (20)
t?rom the Dental Stems the Supine in -sum spread to many other Verbs by
•nalogy. It combines with Consonant-Stems according to the same laws of
etter change as the Perfect in -si.
•
VERBS
152
TABLE OF VERB PERFECTS AND SUPINES.*
I. A- Stems.
Present Infin. Perfect Supine
Usual Form.
•o(-a-io)
-are
-avi
-a-tcm
amo
amarS
amavi
amatum
Exceptions.
-ui
-itum
crepo
cubo
-are
-are
crepui
cubui
crepitum
cubitum
creak
lie doum
domo
-are
domui
domitum
tame
plico
Bono
-are
-are
-plicavi i
-plicui J
sonui
-plicatum >
-plicitum )
sonitum
fold
sound
tono
-are
tonui
tonitum
thunder
veto
-are
vetui >
vetavi I
vetitum
forbid
-Ui
-atnm
mice
-are
micui )
micavi I
-micatum
glitter
-ui
-turn
eneco
-are
enecui
enectum
Mil
frlco
-are
fricui
frictum <
fricatum j
rub
seco
-are
secui
sectum
cut
-1
-turn
(a) Reduplicated
•turn
do
Bid
-are
-are
dedi
steti
datum
statum
give
stand
(b) Lengthened Stem
-turn
JUTO
-are
juv -i
jutum
lavatum |
iielp
lavo
-are
lav -i
lautum >
wash
lotum j
Note.—Juvo, lavo have Fut. Part, juvaturus, lavaturus.
* For very many Supines no authority
exists ; but the form is inferred from the
Perfect Participle Passive, or from the Fu-
ture Participle, or the Verbal Substantive.
Forms printed with a hyphen, as -pli-
cavi, -plicatum, are only used in com-
pounds.
TABLE OF PERFECTS AND SUPINES
99
3
11. E- Stems.
Present
Infin.
Perfect Supine
Usual Form.
-eo (-e-io)
-ere
-ui -Itum
m6neo
monere
monul monltum
Exceptions.
-ui -turn
arceo
dGceo
-ere
-ere
arcui —
docui doctum
ward off
teach
ferveo
-ere
ferbui i
fervi i
behot
misceo
-ere
miscoi mistum .
sorbeo
teneo
torreo
-ere
-ere
-ere
mixtum i
sorbui
tenui tentum
torrui tostum
mix
swallow
hold
scorch
-ui -sum
censeo
-ere
censui censum
deem, vote
-vi -turn
aboleo
cieo
deleo
fleo
neo
-ere *
-ere
-ere
-ere
-ere
abolevi abolitum
cm citum
delevi deletum
flevi fletum
nevi
destroy
stir up
blot out
V- If
-pleo
-ere
-plevi -pletum
spin
fitt
•si -turn
augeo
conlveo
. frlgeo
lugeo
-ere
-ere
-ere
-ere
auxi auctum
conixi
frixi
luxi
increa&s (tr.)
wink
freeze
polluceo
fulgeo
indulgeo
mulgeo
torqueo
-ere
-ere
-ere
-ere
-ere
polluctum
fulsi
indulsi —
mulsi —
torsi tortum
mourn
makeafsast
shine
indulge
milk
twist
-si -sum
algeo
ardeo
haereo
jubeo
luceo
-ere
-ere
-ere
-ere
alsi
arsi
haesi
jussi jussum
luxi —
be cold
burn (intr.)
stick
command
shi fie
maneo
mulceo
rideo
-ere
-ere
-ere
mansi mansum
mulsi mulsum
risi risum
remain
soothe
suadeo
tergeo
-ere
-ere
suasi suasum
tersi
advise
turgeo
-ere
tursi —
wipe
swell
urgeo
-ere
ursi
press
Note.— Ardeo,
haereo have Put. Part, arsurus,
haesurus.
H2
100
VERBS
Present
Jnfin. Perfect Supine
-i -turn or -sum
(a) Lengthened Stem -turn
caveo
-ere
cav-i cautum
beware
faveo
-ere
fav-i fautum
favour
foveo
-ere
fov-i fotum
cherish
mSveo
-ere
mov-i motum
move (tr.)
paveo
-ere
pav-i
quake
voveo
-ere
vov-i votuin
vow
(1
>; Reduplicated -sum
pendeo
mordeo
-ere
-ere
pependi pensum
momordi rnorsum
Jiang (intr.)
bite
spondeo
tondeo
-ere
-ere
spopondi sponsum
totondi tonsum
pledge
shear
(c)
Lengthened Stem -sum
sedeo
-ere
sedi sessum
sit
video
-ere
vidi vlsum
see
prandeo
strideo
-ere
-ere
prandi pransum
stridi
lunch, dine
creak
154
III. Consonant and TJ- Stems.
Consonant Stems.
Present
Infin. Perfect Supine
rego
regere
rexi rectum
-si -turn
c5quo
dlco
-ere
-ere
coxi coctum
dixi dictum
cook
say
dillgo
diico
-ere
-ere
dilexi dilectum
duxi ductum
love
lead
affligo
frlgo
intellego
neglego
pergo
sugo
-ere
-6re
-ere
-ere
-ere
-ere
-flixi -flictum
frixi frictum
intellexi intellectum
neglexi neglectum
perrexi perrectum
suxi suctum
smite down
roast
understand
neglect
proceed
suck
surgo
-ere
surrexi surrectum
arise
tpco
-ere
texi tectum
cover
uv^o
traho
-ere
traxi tractum
draw
veho
-ere
vexi vectum
carry
vivo
-ere
vixi victum
live
fluo
-ere
fluxi fluctum
flow
Btruo
-era
struxi structum
build
TABLE OF PERFECTS AND SUPINES
101
Present
Infin.
Perfect
Supine
carpo
-ere
carpsi
carptum
pluck
nubo
-ere
nupsi
nuptum
marry
repo
-ere
repsi
reptum
creep
scalpo
-ere
scalpsi
scalptum
scratch
sculpo
-ere
sculpsi
sculptum
carve
scrlbo
-ere
scrips!
scriptum
write
gero
-ere
gessi
gestum
carry on
uro
-ere
ussi
ustum
burn (tr.)
como
-ere
compsi
comptum
adorn
demo
-ere
dempsi
demptum
take away
promo
-ere
prompsi
promptum
bring out
sumo
-ere
sumpsi
sumptum
take
temno
-ere
-tempsi
-temptum
despise
ango
-ere
—
—
pain
clango
-ere
—
—
clash
cingo
-ere
cinxi
cinctum
surround
exstinguo
-ere
exstinxi
exstinctum
quench
fingo
-ere
finxi
fictum
feign
jungo
-ere
junxi
junctum
join
pango
-ere
panxi >
pegi J
pactum
fasten
pingo
-ere
pinxi
pictum
paint
stringo
-ere
strinxi
strictum
bind
tingo
-ere
tinxi
tinctum
dye
unguo (ungo)
-ere
unxi
unctum
anoint
ninguit (ningit) -ere
ninxit
—
it snows
-81
-sum
figo
-ere
fixi
fixum
fix
mergo
-ere
mersi
mersum
drown
spargo
-ere
sparsi
sparsum
sprinkle
cedo
-ere
cessi
cessum
yield
claudo
-ere
clausi
clausum
shut
divide
-ere
divlsi
divlsum
divide
laedo
-ere
laesi
laesum
hurt
ludo
-ere
lusi
lusum
play
mitto
-ere
misi
missum
send
plaudo
-ere
plausi
plausum
applaud
rado
-ere
rasi
rasum
scrape
rodo
-ere
rosi
rosum
gnaw
trudo
-ere
trusi
trusum
thrust
vado
-ere
(in)vasi
(in)vasum
go (attack)
prerno
-ere
pressi
pressum
press
flecto
-ere
flexi
flexum
bend
necto
-ere
nexi )
nexuii"
nexum
bind
pec to
-ere
pexi
pexum
comb
quatio
-ere
quassi
quassum
shake (tr.)
oonciitio
-ere
concussi
concussum
shake together
Note. — Nexui,
the more usual
Perf. of necto,
Js from an obsolete
verb, nexo.
102
VERBS
Present
Infin.
Perfect
Supine
-VI
-turn
sero
-ere
sevi
satum
sow
cerno
-ere
crevi
cretum
sift, discern
sperno
-ere
sprevi
spretum
despise
sterno
-ere
stravi
stratum
strew
lino
-ere
levi )
Hvi 1
litum
smear
sino
-ere
slvi
situm
allow
cognosce
-ere
cognovi
cognltum
know
cresco
-ere
crevi
cretum
grow
nosco
-ere
novi
notum
know
pasco
-ere
pavi
pastum
feed (tr.)
abolesco
-ere
abolevi
—
decay
adolesco
-ere
adolevi
—
grow up
obsolesco
-ere
obsolevi
—
grow out of use
quiesco
-ere
quievi
quietum
rest
BUCSCO
-ere
suevi
suetum
grow accustomed
Note. — Adolesco has adjective adultus.
-ivi
-itnm
arcesso
-ere
arcessivi
arcessitum
send for
incesso
-ere
incessivi
—
attack
lacesso
-ere
lacesslvi
lacessitum
provoke
capesso
-ere
capessivi
capessitum
take in hand
cupio
-ere
cuplvi
cupitum
desire
sapio
-ere
sapivi
—
be wise
quaero
-ere
quaeslvi
quaesitum
seek
tero
-ere
tiivi
tritum
rub
-ui
•turn
alo
-ere
alui
altum
nourish
colo
-ere
colui
cultum
till, worship
consulo
-ere
consului
consultum
consult
occulo
-ere
occului
occultum
hide
pinso
-ere
pinsui }
pinsi J
pistum
beat, pound
aero
-ere
serni
sertum
join
texo
-ere
texui
textum
weave
rapio
-ere
rapui
raptum
seize
-Ul
-itum
fremo
-ere
fremui
fremitum
bellow
gemo
-ere
gemui
gemitum
groan
molo
-ere
molui
molitum
grind
strepo
-§re
strepui
strepitum
roar
tremo
-ere
tremui
—
tremble
vomo
-ere
vomui
vomitum
vomit
gigno
-ere
genui
genitum
produce
pono
-ere
posui
positum
place
compesco
-ere
compescui
—
restrain
-m
-sum
meto
-ere
naessui
messum
reap
excello
-ere
excellui
—
excel
TABLE OF PERFECTS AND SUPINES
103
Present Infin. Perfect Supine
-I -turn
(a) Reduplicated -turn
cano
-ere cecmi cantum
sing
pungo
-ere pupugi punctum
prick
tango
-ere tetlgi tactum
touch
tendo
-ere tetendi tentum (tensum)
stretch
disco
-ere didlci
learn
posco
-ere poposci
demand
pario
-ere peperi partum
bring forth
-sum
cado
-ere cecidi casurn
fall
caedo
-ere cecidi caesum
beat, kill
curro
-ere cucurri cursum
run
fallo
-ere fefelli falsum
deceive
parco
-ere peperci parsum
spare
pello
-ere pepuli pulsum
drive
pendo
-ere pependi pensum
hang
tundo
.^.^,. tusum )
-ere tutudi
bruise
tun sum i
Compounds of do
abdo
-ere abdidi abditum
hide
addo
-ere addidi additum
add
condo
-ere condidi conditum
found, hide
credo
-ere credidi creditum
believe
dedo
-ere dedidi deditum
give up
edo
-ere edidi editum
give forth
perdo
-ere perdidi perditum
lose
prodo
-ere prodidi proditum
betray
reddo
-ere reddidi redditum
restore
subdo
-ere subdidi subditum
substitute
trado
-ere tradidi traditum
deliver
vendo
-ere vendidi venditum
sell
Note. — Pereo, perish, veneo, go for sale, are used as Passives of
perdo and vendo.
Reduplicated from sto
sisto
-ere -stiti -statum
make to stand
(b) Lengthened Stem, -turn
emo
•ere emi emptum
buy
lego
-ere legi lectum
choose, read
rumpo
-ere rupi ruptum
break
vinco
-ere vici victurn
conquer
linquo
-ere llqui -lictum
leave
capio
-era cepi captum
take
fugio
-ere fugi fugitum
fly
ago
-ere egi actum
do
frango
-ere fregi fractum
break (tr.)
facio
-ere feci factum
make
jack)
-ere jeci jacturu
throw
104
VERBS
Present
Infin.
Perfect
Supine
Lengthened Stem -I
-sum
fundo
-ere
fudi
fusum
pour
retundo
-ere
rettudi
retusum
beat back
fOdio
-ere
fodi
fossum
dig
6do
-ere
edi
esum
eat
-i -turn, -sum
blbo
-ere
blbi
bibitum
drink
Ico
-ere
ici
ictum
strike
cudo
-ere
cudi
cusum
stamp
sido
-ere
sidi
—
settle
viso
-ere
visi
visum
visit
psallo
-ere
psalli
—
play on strings
verro
-ere
verri
versum
sweep
verto
-ere
verti
versum
turn (tr.)
-cendo
-ere
-cendi
-censum
kindle
-fando
-ere
-fendi
-fensum
strike
findo
-ere
fidi
fissum
cleave
mando
-ere
mandi
mansum
chew
pando
-ere
pandi
pansum »
passum I
open, spread
prehendo
-ere
prehendi
prehensum
grasp
scando
-ere
scandi
scansum
climb
seindo
-ere
scidi
scissum
tear
percello
-ere
perciili
perculsum
thrill
vello
-ere
velli (vulsi)
vulsum
rend
TJ- Stems.
-I
-turn
aeuo
-ere
acui
acutum
sharpen
arguo
-ere
argui
argutum
prove
congruo
-ere
congrui
—
come together
exuo
-gre
exui
exutum
put off
;nduo
-ere
indui
indutum
put on
imbuo
-ere
imbui
imbutum
tinge
luo
-ere
lui
-lutum
wash, atone
metuo
-ere
metui
—
fear
minuo
-ere
minui
minutum
lessen
adnuo
-ere
adnui
— .
nod
pluo
-ere
plui •>
pluvi )
—
rain
ruo
-ere
rui
rutum i
ruitum )
rush, fall
spuo
-ere
spui
sputum
spit
statuo
-ere
statui
statutum
set up
sternuo
-ere
sternui
—
sneeze
EUO
-ere
sui
sutum
sew
tribuo
-ere
tribui
tributum
assign, render
solvo
-ere
solvi
solutum
loosen, pay
vclvo
-<§re
volvi
volutum
roll (tr.)
TABLE OF PERFECTS AND SUPINES
105
156
157
IV. I- Stems.
Present
Infin.
Perfect Supine
Usual Form.
-10 (-i-io)
-ire
-ivi -itum
audio
audlre
audlvi audltum
Exceptions.
-ivi -turn
sepelio
-Ire
sepelivi sepultum bury
-vi -turn
scio
-ire
sciri scitum know
-ui -turn
salio
-Ire
salui dance
aperio
operio
-Ire
-Ire
aperui apertum open
operui opertum cover
•si -turn
amicio
-ire
R1111X1 ) . , , ,*
amicuil amictuxn clothe
fulcio
haurio
-Ire
-Ire
fulsi fultum prop
hausi haustum drain
saepio
sarcio
sancio
-Ire
-Ire
-Ire
saepsi saeptum Jicdge in
sarsi sartum patch
sanxi sanctum hallow
vincio
-Ire
vinxi vinctum bind
-si -sum
sentio
-Ire
sensi sensum feel
-i -turn
venio
-Ire
veni ventum come
comperio
reperio
-Ire
-Ire
comperi compertum find
repperi repertum discover
DEPONENT VERBS.
A-
Stems (Perfect -atus sum).
About 160, all regular.
E-
Stems (Perfect -itus sum).
Present
fateor
llceor
Infin.
-eri
-eri
Perfect
fassus sum confess
licitus sum bid in auction
medeor
-eri
heal
mereor
-eri
meritus sum deserve
mlsereor
-eri
misertus8 I sum Jtave ^ °*
tueor
-eri
tuitus sum protect
reor
-eri
i atus sum think
Io6
VERBS
158
Semi-deponent Verbs.
Present Infin. Perfect
audeo -ere ausus sum
dare
gaudeo -ere gavisus sum
rejoice
soleo -ere solitus sum —
be wont
159 Consonant and U- Stems (Perfect -tus
or -sus sum).
amplector -I amplexus sum
embrace
apiscor -I aptus sum
acquire
expergiscor -1 experrectus sum
waken
fatiscor -I fessus sum
grow weary
fruor -I fruitus sum
enjoy
fungor -I functus sum
perform
gradior -I gressus sum
step
irascor -I iratus sum
be angry
labor -I lapsus sum
glide
-miniscor -I -mentus sum
Jiave in mind
morior -I mortuus sum
die
nactus )
nanciscor -i nanctus 1 sum
obtain
nascor -I natus sum
be born
nltor -i nisus (nixus) sum
strive
paciscor -I pactus sum
bargain
patior -I passus sum
suffer
proficiscor -I profectus sum
set out
queror -I questus sum
complain
ulciscor -I ultus sum
avenge
vescor -I
feed on
liquor -I
melt
ioquor -I locutus sum
speak
sequor -I secutus sum
follow
Note. — The form gressus is very rarely found
except in Compounds.
Morior has Future Participle moriturus.
16O Semi-deponent.
fldo -ere fisus sum
trust
161 I- Stems (Perfect -itus, -tus, or -sus sum).
blandior -iri blanditus sum
flatter
experior -iri expertus sum
try
largior -iri largitus sum
bestow
molior -iri molitus sum
contrive
opperior -Iri oppertus sum
wait for
Srior -Iri ortus sum
arise
potior -iri potitus sum
acquire
punior -Iri punitus sum
punish
sortior -iri sortitus sum
take by lot
assentior -Iri assensus sum
agree
metior -M mensus sum
measure
ordior -Iri orsus sum
begin
Note. — Orior has some forms like capior (133) : oreris, oritur, ortus.
Potior has potltur or potitur, potlmur or potlmur, potlrer or poterer.
ADVERBS 107
PARTICLES.
The Particles are for the most part old cases of Substantives or Adjec-
tives, which have become limited to special uses as Adverbs, Prepositions
or Conjunctions.
The oldest of these is the adverbial use, which was originally to limit
or qualify the action expressed by the Verb, but was afterwards extended to
qualify Adjectives, and sometimes other Adverbs.
Prepositions are Adverbs which have acquired the special use of standing
before Nouns to express relations of place and time.
Many Conjunctions are also Adverbs which have come to be used merely
as links between words or sentences.
I go ADVERBS.
Adverbs are formed either from cases of Substantives, Ad-
jectives or Participles, or from Pronoun roots. Those which are
formed from Adjectives or Participles generally have comparison
(85). Those which are derived from Pronoun roots have no
comparison.
In regard to meaning, they are divided chiefly into Adverbs of
(1) Manner; (2) Degree; (3) Cause; (4) Place ; (5) Time ; (6) Order.
The following are a few of each class :
164 Adverbs of Manner:
lente, slowly. celeriter, quickly.
facile, easily. sapienter, wisely.
false, falsely. vementer, strongly.
ultro, spontaneously.
™X?« ) in like man- aliter' \ ?'r"T
pennde, secus, > differently.
proinde, Y ita, )
similiter, I in tlie same sic, [ so.
itldem, manner. tarn, )
quam, how ? adeo, so far.
ut, as, how.
165 Adverbs of Degree:
multum, much. paullum, little.
quantum, how much. tantum, so much.
satis, enough. ruagia, more.
nimis, ) , , potius, rather.
nimium, I potissimtun. by preference.
valde, very. parum, too little.
ferine, i , , magnopere, greatly.
166 Adverbs of Cause:
kleo, idcirco, propterea, on that account.
io8
ADVERBS
167
Adverbs of Place :
there.
Where : ubi, where ?
ibi,
illic,
usquam, anywhere.
Whither : quo, whither ?
Whence: unde, whence ?
inde, ) ,,
mine, M;iewce-
qua, by what way ?
nic, here.
ibidem, in the same place.
alibi, elsewJiere.
nusquam, nowhere.
hue, hither.
eodem, to tJie same place.
usque, so far.
tone, hence.
indidem,/rora the sameplace.
hac, by this way.
ea, iliac, by that way.
168
When
Adverbs of Time:
quando, ubi, when'} turn, tune, then.
nunc, modo, now.
simul, at the same time.
umquam, ever.
semper, always.
olim, )
quondam,
ante, before.
demum, at length.
How long: quam diu, how long?
diu, long.
jamdiu, long since.
quotiens, how often ?
semel, once.
jam, now. already.
alias, at another time.
numquam, never.
interdum, now and then.
mox, by and bye.
nuper, lately.
post, after.
nondum, not yet.
tamdiu, so long.
usque, continuously.
How often
saepe, often.
crebro, frequently
totiens, so often.
iterum, a second time.
raro, seldom.
identidem, repeatedly.
Adverbs of Order:
primum, first. primo, in tiw beginning.
denique, ifaa
postremo, f tos"y<
169
deinde, in the next place.
deinceps, afterwards.
tertio, thirdly.
17O Sometimes an Adverb qualifies a sentence or phrase, rather
than any particular word.
Adverbs of
Affirmation : etiam, also; quidem, equidem, indeed; vero, but; pla*%
quite ; sane, certainly ; profecto, omnino, certe, surely,
by all means.
Limitation: pariter, alike; simul, together; plerumque, usually;
solum, tantum, modo, only ; partim, partly.
Negation: non, baud, not ; handquaquam. neutiquam, by no means.
Doubt: fortasse, forsan, forsitan, perhaps ; forte, by chance.
Question: cur, quare, quamobrem? why? quomodo, quemadmodum,
quam, ut? how?
PREPOSITIONS. 109
171 PREPOSITIONS.
Prepositions are placed before Nouns to show their relation
to other words in the sentence. They are also compounded with
Verbs to modify their meaning.
172 The following Prepositions are used with the Accusative -.
id
to, at juxta
next to, beside
advents
i j towards, against 6b
over against, on account of
adversum
> i opposite to penes
in the power of
ante
before per
through
apud
at, near, among pone
behind
circum
around post
after, behind
circa, circiter about praeter
beside, past
els, citrS,
on this side of prope
near
contra
against propter
near, on account of
erga
towards secundum
next, along, according to
extra
outside of, without supra
above
infra
below trans
across
inter
between, amidst ultra
beyond
intra within versus, versum towards
173 The following are used with the Ablative :
a, ab, abs by, from ex, e out of, from
absque witJiout palam in sight of
clam unknown to prae before, in front of
coram in the presence of pro before, for
cum with sine without
de from, concerning tenus as far as, reaching to
Note. — Clam is also used with the accusative, but more rarely ;
tenus is placed after the Noun ; it is sometimes used with the
Genitive.
174 The following take the Accusative when they denote motion
towards, and the Ablative when they denote rest :
in into, against, in, on super over, upon
sub up to, under subter under
175 Prepositions used only in Verb compounds are :
ambi, amb-, am-, an- around ambio, go around
dis- apart dissolve, separate ; dirigo, direct
rtd., rf- back, again red-eo, go back ; refero, bring back
sM-! sS- apart secedo, step apart
no
CONJUNCTIONS
L76
CONJUNCTIONS.
Conjunctions are : I. Co-ordinative (400) ; II. Subordinative
(421-429).
177 I. Co-ordinative Conjunctions are :
Connective : et, \
'que' (and
atque (adque), M
ac, j
Separative : aut, \
vel, lor, either.
-ve,j
Adversative: sed, i , .
atqui, but yet.
at enim, but it will be said.
neque,
nor.
nevertheless.
Causal: nam, namque,
enim, etenim
, . ,
, ]Jor' •
Conclusive: ergo, )
itaque, [therefore.
igitur, J
Comparative: nt, uti, )
velut, veluti, [_
sicut, sicuti, I '
ceu,
utpote, as being.
Interrogative: num,
-ne,
nonne,
178 II. Subordinative Conjunctions are
Consecutive: nt, so that.
ut non, so that not.
Final : ut, in order that.
neve, nevL> ^nd that not.
' I and lest,
(whereby.
* ' 1 in order that.
nee,
etiam, |
quoque, [also.
item, j
!lle> r wither, or.
St Uj >
autem, but, now, however.
ceterum, )
verum, [ but, moreover.
vero, j
attamen, \ but never-
verumtamen, I theless.
enimvero, for indeed.
quare, ]
quamobrem, I ^ .
quapropter,
qaocirca, '
quomodo, i ,
quemadmodum, I as> tww'
quam, than, as.
quasi,
! as it were.
tamquam,
utrum — an 1 whetJier — or.
ne:ne, or not ?
( that not.
but that.
ne, lest.
ut ne, that not, lest.
(whereby not.
quominus, -j in order that
[ not.
CONJUNCTIONS
Causal: quod, because. quia,
cum'sl'^- Juan^uidemj^4-
siquidem, inasmuch as.
Temporal : cum (quum), when. quando, wlien.
ut, when. ubi, when.
} while. *um' 1 ...
_ donee. *• until,
s i so loiio as* *
quoad, j quoad, )
quatenus, how long.
• ' - before that. postquam, after that.
pr i uSQ uiini, '
simul ac, as soon as. quotiens, as often ao.
Conditional : si, if. sia (si ne), but if.
sive, i whether. nisi, ni, unless.
seu, S or if. si non, if not.
si modo, if only. • only.
modo, dummodo, provided that.
Concessive : etsi, , ,, .,,,_, tametgi( alth(mgll
quamquam, i hoircvcr, auamvis
utut, i although. ' / however much,
cum, wliereas, although.
ut, licet, granting that, although.
Comparative: quasi (quam si), \
velutsi, Ja^7- tamquam,}-^
'^79 The following pairs are often used as Correlatives :
et . . . . et ] give siv
que . . . que - both . . . and ^e I whether ... or
lut"'aut sic.V.'ut, so... as
either ... or ut . . . ita, as ... so
SirSsl-J.^ -••- -*"»
neve . . . neve j
180 INTERJECTIONS.
An Interjection is an exclamatory word, used either to
draw attention or to express feeling. The most usual are :
O, O ! oh! pro or proh, forbid it .'
A er ah, alas ! vae, woe !
eheu, heu, ei, alas 1 en, ecce, lo ! behold t
SYNTAX.
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE
Introductory Outline.
181 SYNTAX teaches how Sentences are made.
Sentences are Simple or Compound.
182 A Simple Sentence has two parts :
1. The Subject : the person or thing spoken about ;
2. The Predicate : that which is said about the
Subject.
183 1. The Subject must be a Substantive, or some word
or words taking the place of a Substantive :
A Substantive : lex, the law ;
A Substantive Pronoun : ego, I ;
An Adjective, Participle, or Adjectival Pronoun : Komanus,
a Roman ; iratus, an angry man ; ille, that (man) ;
A Verb Noun Infinitive : navigare, to sail, or sailing ;
A Phrase : satis ternporis, enough time.
184 2. The Predicate must either be a Verb or contain a
Verb, because it makes a statement or assertion about the
Subject ; and it is usually a Verb Finite, which alone has
the power of making direct statements.
114 SYNTAX
185 EXAMPLES OF THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.
Subject.
Lex
Law
Predicate,
jubet.
commands.
Subject.
Navigare
Sailing
Predicate,
delectat.
delights.
Nos
We
paremus.
obey.
Satis temporis
Enough time
datur.
is given.
Note.— A. single Verb may be a sentence. Veni, vidi, vici, I came, I saw,
I conquered, comprises three sentences.
186 Some Verbs cannot by themselves form complete Pre-
dicates. The Verb sum is a complete Predicate only when
it implies mere existence :
est ubi Troja fuit. Ov.
Corn is where Troy was.
It more often links the Subject with the Complement,
which completes what is said about it.
187 Verbs which link a Subject and Complement are called
Copulative Verbs.
Others besides sum are : —
appareo, appear ; audio, am called ; maneo, remain ;
evado, existo, turn out ; videor, seem.
The Passives of Verbs of making, saying, thinking (Factitive
Verbs*) are also used as Copulative Verbs (206) :
fio (facio), become or am made ; feror, am reported',
appellor, am called ; legor, am chosen ;
creor, am created ; putor, am thought ;
declarer, am declared ; vocor, am called.
188 Copulative Verbs have the same Case after them as before
them.
• These Verbs are called Factitive from facere, to make, because they contain the idea
of making.
INTRODUCTORY OUTLINE
Copulative Verb
Complement.
est
validus.
is
strong.
appellantur
are called
philosophi.
philosopliers.
189 The Complement may be —
1. An Adjective or Adjectival Word.
2. A Substantive.
Subject. Predicate.
1. Leo
The lion
2. Illi
They
190 Many Verbs usually require another Verb in the Infinitive
to carry on their construction ; such are : soleo, am wont ;
possum, am able ; queo, can ; debeo, ought ; volo, wish ; conor'
endeavour.
Solet legere. Possum ire.
He is wont to read. I am able to go.
These Verbs are called Indeterminate, and the Infinitive
following them is called Prolative, because it carries on (profert)
their construction
191 A Simple Sentence may be enlarged in many ways.
The Subject may be qualified by Adjectives or Pronouns in
Agreement, or may have words in Apposition added to it.
The Verb may be qualified by Adverbs or Adverbial phrases ;
it may have a Preposition with a Case, or some part of the Verb
Infinite depending on it ; if Transitive, it has a Nearer Object
and may have also a Eemoter Object ; if Intransitive, it may
have a Eemoter Object in the Dative.
The Complement may again be qualified by an Adjective or
an Adverb, or by a Case of a Noun, or a Preposition with a Case.
116 SYNTAX
AGKEEMENT.
KULES OF THE FOUR CoNCOBDS.
192 I. A Verb agrees with its Subject in Number and
Parson :
Tempus fugit. Libri leguntur.
Time flies. Books are read.
193 II- An Adjective or Participle agrees in Gender, Number, and
Case with the Substantive it qualifies :
Vir bonus bonam uxorem habet.
The good man has a good wife.
Verae amicitiae sempiternae sunt. Cic.
True friendships are everlasting.
194 III. When a Substantive or Pronoun is followed by
another Substantive, so that the second explains or de-
scribes the first, and has the same relation to the rest of
the sentence, the second Noun agrees in Case with the
first, and is said to be in Apposition :
Nos liberi pattern Lollium imitabimur.
We children will imitate our fatlier Lollius.
Procas, rex Albanorum, duos filios, Numitorem et
Amulium, habuit. LIT.
Procas, king of the Albans, had two sons, Numitor and Amulius.
195 IV. The Relative qui, quae, quod, agrees with its
Antecedent in Gender, Number and Person; in Case it
takes its construction from its own clause (330) :
Amo te, mater, quae me amas.
I love you, mother, who love me.
Quis hie est homo quern ante aedes video ? PLAUT.
Who is this man whom I see before the house ?
Ar bores multas serit agricola, quarum fructus non adspiciet. Cic.
The farmer plants many trees, of which he will not see the fruit.
AGREEMENT 117
196 Notes on the Concords.
1. 1. — The Verb est, sunt, is often understood, not expressed :
Nihil bonum nisi quod honestum. Cic.
Nothing is good except wliat is virtuous.
2. A Copulative Verb occasionally agrees with the Complement rather
than with the Subject :
Amantium irae amoris integratio est. TEB.
The qiiarrels of lovers are the renewal of love.
197 DL 1. A Substantive often agrees in Number and Gender with tha
Noun to which it is in apposition :
Stilus, optimus et praestantissimus dicendi magister. Cic.
The pen, best and chief teacher of oratory.
Philosophia, vitae magistra. Cic.
Philosophy, the mistress of life.
2. A Noun may be in apposition to a Personal Pronoun understood :
Hannibal peto pacem. Lrv.
I Hannibal sue for peace.
COMPOSITE SUBJECT.
198 1. When two or more Nouns are united as the Subject,
the Verb and Adjectives are usually in the Plural :
Veneno absumpti sunt Hannibal et Philopoemen. Lty.
Hannibal and Philopoemen were cut off by poison.
Aetas, metus, magister eum cohibebant. TEB.
Age, fear, and a tutor were restraining him.
2. If the Persons of a Composite Subject are different, the
Verb agrees with the first person rather than the second ; with
the second rather than the third :
Si tu et Tullia valetic, ego et Cicero valemus. Cic.
If you and Tullia are well, I and Cicero are well.
Ii8 SYNTAX
3. When the Genders are different, Adjectives agree with the
Masculine rather than with the Feminine :
Eex regiaque classis una profecti. Lrv.
TJie king and the royal fleet set out together.
4. If the things expressed are without life, the Adjectives are
generally Neuter :
Begna, honores, divitiae, caduca et incerta sunt. Cic.
Kingdoms, honours, riches, are frail and fickle things.
199 Notes on the Composite Subject.
1. When several Subjects of the third person are united, the Verb is
sometimes found in the Singular, agreeing with one only :
Nunc mihi nihil libri, nihil litterae, nihil doctrina prodest. Cic.
Now neither do books avail me, nor letters, nor does learning.
2. If the union of two Subjects forms a single notion, the Verb may
be Singular :
Senatus populusque Romanus intellegit. Cic.
TJie Roman senate and people understand.
3. But sometimes when a Collective Noun is the Subject, although it 19
Singular in form, the Verb and Adjectives are Plural :
Pars militum capti, pars occisi sunt. Lrv.
Part of the soldiers were taken captive, part were slain.
Observe that the Adjectives agree in Gender with the individuals of
which the Collective "Noun is made up.
THE CASES 119
THE CASES.
THE NOMINATIVE AND VOCATIVE CASES.
200 The Subject of a Finite Verb is in the Nominative Case :
Anni fugiunt. Labitur aetas. Ov.
Years flee. Time glides away.
Note. — When an Infinitive, called Historic, is used for the Imperfect
of a Finite Verb, the Nominative remains as the Subject (372) :
Turn pius Aeneas umeris abscindere vestem. VERG.
Then tlie pious Aeneas began to tear his vest from his stioulders.
201 A Substantive joined to the Subject by a Copulative
Verb is in the Nominative Case :
Cicero declaratus est consul. Cic.
Cicero was declared consul.
202 The Vocative stands apart from the construction of the
sentence, with or without an Interjection (404) :
0 s o 1 pulcher, o laudande ! HOB.
O beauteous sun, worthy of praise !
Pompei, meorum prime sodalium 1 HOB.
O Pompeius, earliest of my comrades !
Note.— The Nominative sometimes takes the place of the Vocative :
Audi, tu, populus Albanus. Liv.
Hear, thou people of Alba.
THE ACCUSATIVE CASE.
203 The Accusative Case is used to express :
A. The Nearer Object of the Verb.
B. Place to which there is motion.
C. The idea contained in the Verb (Cognate Accusative),
D. Adverbial Relations.
SYNTAX
A. Accusative of Hearer Object.
204 The nearer Object of a Transitive Verb is in the
Accusative Case :
Agricola colit agros; uxor domum tuetur.
The farmer tills the fields ; his wife takes care of tlie house.
Haec studia adulescentiam alunt, senectutem oblectant.
Tliese studies nurture youth, and delight old age. [Cic.
205 Note 1. — Intransitive Verbs when compounded with Prepositions are
often transitive :
Antonius oppugnat Brutum, Mutinam circamsedet. Cic
Antonius is making war on Brutus, and besieging Mutina.
Note 2. — Some Compounds take two Accusatives :
Caesar equites flumen transjecit. CAES.
Caesar threw his cavalry across the river.
206 Factitive Verbs (verbs of making, saying, thinking)
have a second Accusative in agreement with the Object :
Ciceronem consulem populus declaravit. SALL.
Tlie people declared Cicero consul.
Socrates totius se mundi civem arbitrabatur. Cic.
Socrates considered himself a citizen of the whole world.
207 Note. — The Accusative is used as the Subject of the Infinitive to form a
Clause which may be the Object of Verbs of saying, thinking, and per-
ceiving, or the Subject of Impersonal Verbs (414).
Solem fulgere videmus.
We see Uiat the sun shines.
208 Some Verbs of teaching, asking, concealing (doceo,
teach, flagito, demand, rogo, ask, oro, pray, celo, conceal) , take
two Accusatives, one of the Person, the other of the Thing :
Eacilius primum me sententiam rogavit. Cic.
Racilius asked me first my opinion.
ACCUSATIVE CASE
Quidnunc te litteras doceam ? Cic.
Why should I now teach you letters ?
Antigonus iter omnes celat. NEP.
Antigonus conceals from all his line of march.
fn the Passive they keep the Accusative of the Thing :
Primus a Eacilio sententiam rogatus sum.
I was asked my opinion first by Eacilius.
Note. — Quaero, peto, take Ablative of the Person with a or ab : hoc a te
peto, this I ask of you.
209 Note. — Intransitive Verbs which express feeling sometimes take an Accu-
sative of the Object which excites the feeling :
Non omnia quae dolemus queri possumus. Cic.
We cannot complain of all things which we grieve for.
Virgas ac secures dictatoris horrent et tremunt. Liv.
They shudder and tremble at the rods and axes of the dictator.
Note. — An Accusative is used in exclamations, with or without an
Interjection: Me miser urn, O wretched me ! 0 fragilem fortunam I O fickle
fortune I
210 Note. —Some Passive Verbs in poetry take an Accusative, when used
reflexively. Such verbs are induor, dress oneself, exuor, undress oneself,
cingor, gird oneself:
Inutile ferrum cingitur. VERO. Exuitur cornua. Ov.
He girds on the useless steel. She puts off her horns.
A similar construction is frequently used with Passive Participles :
Virgines longam indutae vestem canentes ibant. Lrv.
Virgins marched singing, arrayed in long robes.
Nascuntur flores inscripti nomina regum. VERG.
Flowers spring up inscribed with names of kings.
This construction is analogous to that of the Greek Middle Voice.
211 B. Place to which Motion is directed is in the Accusative :
eoEomam, I go to Rome (269, 273).
Note. — Similar are the phrases : pessum ire, to go to tlie bad ; infitias
ire, to deny ; suppetias ire, to march in aid ; venum ire, to be sold
122 SYNTAX
C. Cognate Accusative.
212 Many Intransitive Verbs take an Accusative contain^
ing the same idea as the Verb, and often from the same
stem:
Fortuna ludum insolentem ludit. HOB.
Fortune, plays an insolent game*
Modice et modeste melius est vitam vivere. PLAUT.
It is best to live one's life temperately and modestly.
Itque reditque viam totiens. VERG.
He goes and returns the same way as often.
Note. — The Cognate Accusative must have some more limited meaning
than that which is contained in the Verb, either expressed by an Adjective
or implied in the Noun itself : ludum insolentem ludere, to play an inso-
lent game ; dicta dicere, to say witty sayings.
D. Adverbial Accusative.
213 The Accusative of Eespect is joined to Verbs and Adjectives,
especially in poetry :
Tremit art us. VERO. Niidae lacertos. TAC.
He trembles in his limbs. Bare as to tlie arms.
Omnia Mercuric similis vocemque color emque. VERO.
In all points like Mercury, both in voice and complexion.
Note 1.— Adverbial Accusatives with Verbs and Nouns are very nume-
rous : multum, much ; aliquid, in some degree ; cetera, in other respects ; id
genus, of tliat kind ; id temporis, at that time : multum amare, to love
much ; quid refert ? what does it matter ?
Note 2. — Neuter Adjectives and Pronouns are used in the Accusative by
poets like Adverbs :
Dulce ridere. Lucidum fulgere. HOB.
To smile sweetly. To shine brightly.
Dulce ridentem Lalagen amabo, dulce loquentem. HOB.
I will love the sweetly smiling, sweetly speaking Lalage.
(For the Accusative of Extent see Time, 278, and Space, 281-3.)
DATIVE CASE
THE DATIVE CASE.
214 The Dative is the Case of the Person or Thing for whose inter-
est anything exists or is done. It expresses :
A. The person or thing to whom or which something is
done : Dative of the Remoter Object.
B. The person or thing/or whom or which something is done:
Dative of Advantage.
Special uses are : (a) Dative of Agent, (6) Ethic Dative,
(c) Dative of Possessor, (d) Dative of Eesult, (e) Dative of
Purpose.
A. Dative of the Eemoter Object.
The Dative of the Remoter Object is used :
215 !• With Transitive Verbs of giving, telling, showing, pro-
mising, which take also an Accusative of the Nearer Object :
Tibi librum sollicito damus aut fesso. Hon.
We give you a book wlien you are anxious or weary.
Saepe tibi meum somniura narravi. Cic.
/ have often told you my dream.
Nobis spondet fortnna salutem. VERG.
Fortune guarantees safety to us.
216 2. With Intransitive Verbs of phasing, helping, sparing,
pardoning, appearing, speaking, believing, obeying, and their
opposites. These Verbs have the Dative as their only Object :
Victrix causa deis placuit sed victa Catoni. LUCAX.
The conquering cause pleased the. gods, but tlie conquered pleased
Cato.
Imperio parent. CAES. Farce pio generi. VERG.
Th?y obey the command. Spare a pious race.
I m per at aut servit collecta pecunia cuique. HOR.
Money amassed rules or serves every man.
Non possum dolori tanto resistere. Cic.
I cannot withstand so great a sorrow.
Note.- These Verbs contain the ideas of being pleasing to, helpful to,
obedient to, itc.
I24 SYNTAX
217 Note. — Delecto, juvo, delight, laedo, hurt, guberno, govern, rego, rule,
jubeo, command, take an Accusative :
Multos castra juvant. HOE. Animum rege. Hou.
The camp delights many. Rule tlie temper.
Tempero, moderor, govern, restrain, take sometimes the Accusative,
sometimes the Dative :
Hie moderatur equos qui non moderabitur irae. Hon.
This man controls horses ivho will not restrain his anger.
218 3. With Adjectives implying nearness, fitness, likeness,
help, kindness, trust, obedience, or any opposite idea :
Hortus ubi et tecto vicinus jugis aquae fons. HOR.
Where is a garden, and near to the house a fount of flowing water.
Quis amicior quam frater fratri? SALL.
Who [is] more friendly than a brother to a brotJier ?
Homini fidelissimi sunt equus et canis. PLIN.
The horse and the dog are most faithful to man.
Turba gravis paci, placidaeque inimica quieti. LUCAN.
The crowd hostile to peace, unfriendly to tranquil rest.
Note. — The following take Genitive or Dative : communis, common,
proprius, proper. Affinis, akin, alienus, foreign, par, equal, sacer, sacred,
superstes, surviving, take usually Dative, sometimes Genitive. Similis,
like, takes usually Genitive, sometimes Dative. Adjectives of fitness as
aptus, sometimes take Accusative with ad.
219 4. More rarely with Substantives or Adverbs :
Nulla fides regni sociis. LUCAN.
No reliance is to be placed on partners in government.
Justitia est obtemperatio legibus. Cic.
Justice is obedience to laws.
Congruenter naturae vivendum est. Crc.
We must live agreeably to nature.
Note I.— Some Verbs, as credo, believe, entrust, fido, trust, suadeo, per-
suade, minor, threaten, gratulor, congratulate, are used both transitively
and intransitively :
Perfidis se credidit hostibus. HOB.
He trusted himself to treacherous enemies.
Non est, crede mihi, sapientis dicere : Vivam. MART.
It is not, believe me, the part of a wise man to say, ' J will live.'
Note 2. — Nubo, marry (lit. take the veil for), and vaco, have leisure for,
take the Dative :
DATIVE CASE 125
His duobus fratribus duae Tulliae nupserant. Liv.
The two Tullias had married tJiese two brothers.
Philosophiae semper vaco. Cic.
I have always leisure for philosophy.
Note 3. — The Verbs irascor, feel angry, pugno, fight, certo, strive, some-
tives take a Dative : sibi irascitur, he is angry with himself.
220 Many Verbs, Transitive and Intransitive, are used with a
Dative of the Eemoter Object when compounded with the
following Prepositions :
ad, ante, ab, sub, super, ob,
in, inter, de, con, post, and prae.
Also Verbs compounded with bene, male, satis.
(a) Transitive :
Gigantes bellum dis intulerunt. Cic.
The giants waged war against tlie gods.
Praesentia confer praeteritis. LUCB.
Compare present things with past.
(ty Intransitive :
His negotiis non interfuit solum sed praefuit. Cic.
He not only took part in these affairs, but directed them.
Nullus in orbe sinus Baiis praelucet amoenis. HOR.
No bay in the world outshines the pleasant Baiae.
Ceteris satisfacio semper, mihi numquam. Cic.
I always satisfy others, myself never.
B. Dative of Advantage.
221 The person or thing for whose advantage or disad-
vantage something is done is in the Dative Case :
Tibi aras, tibi seris, tibi eidem metis. PLAXTT.
For yourself you plough, for yourself you sow, for the same self
you reap.
Non solum nobis divites essevolumus. Cio.
We do not wish to be rich for ourselves alone.
Sic vos non vobis mellificatis, apes 1 VEBQ.
Thus ye make honey not for yourselves, O bees I
126 SYNTAX
Special Uses of the Dative.
222 («) A Dative, commonly called the Dative of the Agent, is
often used with the Gerundive, and occasionally with Passive
Participles and with Adjectives in -bilis (381) :
Ut tibi ambulandum, sic mihi dormiendum eat. Cic.
As you have to walk, I have to sleep.
Magnus civis obit et formidatus Othoni. Juv.
A great citizen and one dreaded by Otlio has died.
Multis ille bonis flebilis occidit. HOB.
He died a cause of weeping to many good men.
.Note.— Rarely, in poetry, a Personal Passive takes a Dative :
Non intellegor ulli. Ov.
I am intelligible to none.
223 (b) A Dative, called the Ethic Dative, is used, in familiar talk
or writing, to express interest or call special attention :
Quid mihi Celsusagit? HOR.
Tell me wluit is Celsus about ?
Haec vobis per biduum eorum militia fuit. Liv.
This, mind you, was their style of fighting for two days.
224 (c) The Dative of the Possessor, with esse, is used when
emphasis is laid on the thing possessed, not on the possessor:
Est mihi plenus Albani cadus. HOB.
I have a cask full of Alban wine.
Tons cui nomen Arethusa fuit. Cic.
A fountain of which the name was Arethusa.
Note. — With such phrases as ' cui nomen est ' a second Dative is some-
times joined by attraction : Volitans cui nomen asilo Bomanum est (VERO.),
an insect of which the Roman name is ' asilus. A like attraction occurs
with other factitive and copulative verbs : Huic ego diei nomen Trinummo
faciam (PLAUT.), I will give to this day the name Trinummus. Analogous to
these are the attractions : Hoc mihi volenti est, non invito, this is with my
good will, not against it. Mihi non licet esse neglegenti (Cic.), I must not
be negligent.
ABLATIVE CASE 127
225 (d) ^ne Dative is used in connection with the Dative of the
Person interested, to describe what some thing (or person) is or
causes :
Exitio est avidum mare nautis. HOR.
The greedy sea is a destruction to sailors.
L. Cassius quaerere solebat, 'cuibonofuisset.' Cic.
Lucius Cassius used to ask wlw had been tlic gainer (lit. ' to whom
had it been for a good ').
Note. — The Dative of the Person interested is often not expressed.
Nimia fiducia calamitati solet esse. NEP.
Too great confidence is wont to be a calamity (to men).
Exemplo est magni formica laboris. HOR.
The ant is an example of great industry.
226 (e) The Dative may express the Purpose of action :
Equitatum auxilio Caesari miserunt. CAES.
They sent the cavalry as a help to Caesar.
Note. — Observe the phrases, receptui canere, to give t)w signal for
retreat ; alimento serere, to sow for food ; laudi vertere alicui, to turn
to tlie praise of someone ; vitio vertere alicui, to impute as a fault to someone.
227 Sometimes the Dative is used in poetry for the place towards
which there is motion :
It clamor caelo, VEKG., a shout ascends towards heaven.
THE ABLATIVE CASE.
228 The Ablative is the Case which defines circumstances;
it is rendered by many Prepositions, from, with, by, in.
Its uses may be divided into :
A. Ablative of Separation (from, of).
B. Ablative of Association (with).
C. Instrumental Ablative (by, with).
D. Ablative of ' Place where ' (Locative, in, at).
128 SYNTAX
A. Pure Ablative.
229 1. The Ablative of Separation is used with Verbs
meaning to remove, release, deprive; with Adjectives such
as liber, free, solutus, released, and also the Adverb procul,
far from :
Cedes coemptis saltibus et domo. HOE.
You will depart from purchased glades and house.
Populus Atheniensis Phocionem p atria pepulit. NEP.
The AtJienian people drove Phocion from his country.
Vacare culpa maximum est solacium. Cic.
To be free from blame is a very great comfort.
Procul negotiis, solutus omni fenore. HOB.
Far from business, freed from all usury.
230 2. The Ablative of Origin is used with Verbs, chiefly
Participles, implying descent or origin :
Atreus, Tantalo prognatus, Pelope natus. Cic.
Atreus, descended from Tantalus, and son of Pelops.
231 3. The Ablative of Comparison (expressing Difference)
is used with Comparative Adjectives and Adverbs :
Nihil est amabilius virtute. Cic.
Nothing is more amiable than virtue.
Neminem Lycurgo utiliorem Sparta genuit. VAL. MAX.
Sparta produced no man more serviceable tJian Lycurgus.
Note. — This construction is equivalent to quam, than, with the Nomina-
tive or Accusative. ' Virtute ' equals ' quam virtus ; ' ' Lycurgo,' ' quam
Lycurgum.' With other cases than Nom. or Accus. quam must be used for
comparison :
Nihilo amicior est Phaedriae quam Antiplioni. TER.
He is in no degree more friendly to Phaedria than to Antipho.
(For « Place whence ' see 270, 274.)
ABLATIVE CASE 129
B. Ablative of Association.
232 Note. — This includes the uses of an old case called the Sociative Case,
expressing the circumstances associated with the Subject or the action of
the Sentence.
233 1. The Ablative of Association is used with Verbs and
Adjectives denoting plenty, fulness, possession : abundo,
abound, dono, present, praeditus, endowed with (253) :
Villa abundat gallina, lacte, caseo, melle. Cic.
Tlie farm abounds in poultry, milk, cheese, lioney.
Juvenem praestanti munere donat. VEBG.
He presents tlie youth with a noble gift.
Legiones pulchris armis praeditae. PLAOT.
Legions furnished with splendid armour.
Note. — Dono also takes the Accusative of the thing with Dative of the
Person : Caesar praedam militibus donat, Caesar gives the booty to tlie
soldiers.
234 2. The Ablative of Quality is used with an Adjective in
agreement (255) :
Senex promissa barba, horrenti capillo. PiuN. Mrs.
An old man with long beard and rough hair.
Habuit fratrem Dumnorigem summa audacia. CAES.
He Jiad a brotlier Dumnorix of supreme audacity.
235 3. Ablative of Respect :
Pauci numero. Natione Medug.
Few in number. By birth a Hede.
Et corde et genibus tremit. HOB.
It trembles both in heart and knees.
Ennius, ingenio maximus, arte rudis. Ov.
Ennius, mighty in genius, in art (is) rude.
Note.— In the phrases natu major, older, natu minor, younger, natu is
an Ablative of Respect.
236 4. The Ablative of the Manner in which something
happens or is done has an Adjective in agreement with it ;
or it follows the Preposition cum, with :
Jam veniet tacito curva senecta pede. Ov.
Presently bent old age will come with silent foot.
Athenienses summa vi proelium commiserunt. NEP.
The Athenians began the battle with the greatest vigour.
K
130 SYNTAX
Magna cum eura atque diligentia scripsit. Cic.
He wrote with great care and attention.
Note. — More majorum, in the fashion of our ancestors, pace tua, with
your leave, jure, by right, injuria, wrongfully, ratione, on principle, are
Ablatives of Manner.
237 5. The Ablative Absolute is a phrase, consisting of a
Noun in the Ablative Case and a Participle, or another
Noun, in agreement with it :
Eegibus exactis consules creati sunt. Lrv.
Kings having been abolished, consuls were elected.
Pereunte obsequio imperium intercidit. TAG.
Obedience failing, government falls to pieces.
Caesare venture, Phosphore, redde diem. MART.
Caesar being on his way, star of morn, restore the day.
Nil desperandum Teucro duce et auspice Teucro. HOB.
There must be no despair, Teucer being leader and Teucer omen-
giver.
Natus est Augustus consulibus Cicerone et Antonio.
SUETON.
Augustus was born when Cicero and Antonius were consuls.
Quid dicam hac juventute ? Cic.
What can I say when our young men are of this stamp ?
Nott. — The Ablative Absolute is equivalent to a shortened Adverbial
Clause within the Sentence, serving to explain some circumstance which
indirectly affects the action of the Sentence. It is called Absolute because
it is independent in construction of the rest of the Sentence. A dependent
clause joined to the Sentence by a Conjunction may be used instead of the
Ablative Absolute. In the above example « Kegibus exactis ' could be
replaced by ' Cum reges exacti essent,' when kings had been driven out.
C. Instrumental Ablative.
238 Note.— This Ablative includes the uses of the old Instrumental Case.
239 The Agent by whom something is done is in the Ablative
Case, with the Preposition a, ab, after a Passive or Quasi'
passive Verb (296, 300, 303).
ABLATIVE CASE 131
240 1. The Instrument by means of which something is
done is in the Ablative Case without a Preposition :
Hi jaculis, illi certant defendere aaxis. VEEG.
These strive to defend with javelins, those with stones.
Dente lupus, cornu taurus petit. HOB.
The wolf attacks with his teeth, the butt with his horns.
Opportuna loca armatis hominibus obsidet. SALL.
He occupies convenient posts with armed men.
241 2. The Ablative of the Cause is used with Adjectives,
Passive Participles, and Verbs :
Coeptis immanibus effera Dido. VERG.
Dido driven wild by her Iwrrible designs.
Oderunt peccare mali formidine poenae. HOB.
The bad liate to sin through fear of punishment.
242 3. The Deponent Verbs fungor, perform, fruor, enjoy,
vescor, feed on, utor, use, potior, possess oneself of (253),
take an Ablative :
Hannibal cum victoria posset uti frui maluit. Liv.
Hannibal, when he could use his victory, preferred to enjoy it.
Numidae ferina carne vescebantur. SALT/.
The Numidians used to feed on the flesh of wild animals.
243 4. The Adjectives dignus, worthy, indignus, unworthy,
and the Transitive Verb dignor, deem worthy, also con-
tentus, contented, and fretus, relying on, take an Ablative :
Dignum laude virum Musa vetat mori. HOB.
A man worthy of praise the Muse forbids to die.
Haud equidem tali me dignor honor e. VERG.
I do not indeed deem myself worthy of such lionour.
Note. — Opus est, usus est, tJiere is need of, take the Ablative.
Ubi res adsunt, quid opus est verbis? SALL.
When things are present, wliat is the need of words ?
244 5. An Ablative of the Measure of difference is joined as
an Adverb with Comparatives and Superlatives and, rarely,
with Verbs :
Sol multis partibus major est quam luna. Cio.
The sun is many degrees larger than the moon.
K2
132 SYNTAX
Especially the Ablatives :
altero, hoc, eo, quo, dimidio, duplo, quanto, tanto,
nihilo and nimio, paullo, multo, aliquanto.
Quo plus habent, eo plus cupiunt.
The more tliey liave, tfie more tliey desire.
Hibernia dimidio minor est quam Britannia. CAES.
Ireland is smaller by half than Britain.
245 6. The Ablative of Price is used with Verbs and Adjec-
tives of buying and selling :
Vendidit hie auro patriam. VEBQ.
This man sold his country for gold.
Multorum sanguine victoria stetit. Liv.
The victory cost (literally stood at) tlie blood of many.
Note. — Ablatives of price are magno, at a high price; parvo, minim*,
vili, at a low price (257) :
Parvo fames constat, magno fastidium. SEN.
Hunger costs little, daintiness much.
D. The Locative Ablative.
246 The Locative is the Case of the Place at which some-
thing is or happens. Its distinct forms remain in the
Singular in names of towns and small islands : Eomae,
at Rome ; Corcyrae, at Corcyra ; and in a few other
words, as domi, at home. For the most part its uses
have passed to the Ablative, and it is often difficult to
distinguish between the two Cases, especially in the Plural,
where their forms are identical. The Locative is some-
times used for a point of time : die septimi, on the seventh
day, Kalendis, on the Kalends', Idibus, on the Ides,
Note. — The word animi in such phrases as anxius animi, anxious;
pendere animi, to n-aver in mind, is probably Locative.
(For « Place where,' see 268, 372[aJ.)
GENITIVE CASE 133
THE GENITIVE CASE.
247 The Genitive is used to define or complete the meaning
of another Noun on which it depends. It also follows
certain Verbs.
The uses of the Genitive may be divided into :
A. Genitive of Definition. D. Partitive Genitive.
B. Possessive Genitive. E. Objective Genitive.
Co Genitive of Quality.
A. Genitive of Definition.
248 1. The Genitive of Definition follows the Noun on which
it depends :
Vox voluptatis. Nomen regis.
The word pleasure. The name of king.
Note. — But the name of a city is always placed in Apposition: urbs
Roma, tlie city of Rome.
249 2. The Attributive Genitive defines the Ncun on which
it depends like an Adjective :
Lux soli s. Anni labor.
The light of the sun. A wear's toil.
250 3. The Genitive of the Author :
Ea statua dicebatur esse Myronis. Crc.
That statue was said to be Myro's.
Legendi sunt vobis Platonis libri. Cic.
You slvmld read the works of Plato.
251 4. The Genitive is often used in Impersonal construc-
tion with a Copulative Verb, followed by an Infinitive,
where hi English a word such as nature, part, characteris-
tic, or mark, must be supplied to complete the meaning :
Cujusvis hominis est errare. Cic.
It is (the nature) of any man to err.
134 SYNTAX
Est adulescentis majores natu vereri. Cic.
It is a young man's (part) to reverence his elders.
Tempori cedere habetur sapientis. Cic.
To yield to occasion is held (tlie mark) of a wise man.
Note. — The word proprium is often used :
Sapientis est proprium nihil quod paenitere possit f acere. Cic.
It is the characteristic of a wise man to do nothing which he may
repent of.
252 5. Verbs and Adjectives of accusing, condemning, con
victing, or acquitting take a Genitive of the fault or crime :
Alter latrocinii re us, alter caedis convict us est. Cic.
The one was accused of robbery, tJie otJier was convicted of murder.
Miltiades capitis absolutus pecunia multatus est. NEP.
Miltiades, acquitted of capital crime, was fined.
Note. — Sometimes the Ablatives nomine, on the ground of, crimins,
on the charge of, are used :
Themistocles crimine proditionis absens damnatus est. NEP.
TJiemistocles was convicted while absent on the charge of treason.
253 6. Verbs and Adjectives implying want said, fulness, es-
pecially 3geo, indigeo, want, impleo, fill, potior, get possession
o/(242), p\euu8,full, often take a Genitive (233) :
Virtus plurimae exercitationis indiget. Cic.
Virtue needs very much practice.
Hanc juventutem spei animorumque implevere. Lrv.
They filled these youths with hope and spirit.
Eomani signorum et armorum potiti sunt. SALL.
The Romans got possession of standards and arms.
Acerra turis plena. HOB.
A pan full of incense.
GENITIVE CASE 135
254 B. Possessive Genitive.
Eegis copiae. Cic. Contempsi Catilinae gladios. Cic.
The king's forces. I have braved the swords of Catiline.
Singulorum opes divitiae sunt civitatis. Cic.
The means of individuals are the state's riches.
Sometimes the Genitive depends on a Noun understood :
Hectoris Andromache. VERG.
Hector's (wife) Andromache.
Ventum erat ad Vestae. HOB.
We }iad come to Vesta's (temple).
C. Genitive of Quality.
255 1. The Genitive of duality has an Adjective in agreement :
Ingenui vultus puer ingenuique pudoris. Juv.
A boy of noble countenance and noble modesty.
Memoriae felicioris est nomen Appii. Liv,
The name of Appius is of happier memory.
256 2. Number and age are expressed by the Genitive :
Classis septuaginta navium. Puer annorum novem.
A fleet of seventy ships. A boy of nine years.
257 3. Genitives of Value, magni, parvi, plurimi, minimi,
nihili, are used with Verbs of valuing ; the Genitives tanti,
quanti, pluris, minoris, are also used with Verbs of buying
and selling, but not to express definite price.
Voluptatem virtus minimi facit.
Virtue accounts pleasure of very little value.
Emit hortos tanti, quanti Pythius voluit. Cic.
He bought the gardens for as much as Pythius wished,
Quanti id emit? Vili. PLATJT.
For how much did he buy it ? For a low price.
Note. — The Genitives flocci, nauci were used in the popular speech to
express worthlessness, answering to the English expressions, not worth a
straw, a nut, &c.
Judices rempublicam flocci non faciunt. Cic.
The judges make the republic of no account.
136 SYNTAX
D. Partitive Genitive.
258 The Genitive of a Noun which is distributed into parts
is called a Partitive Genitive.
259 1. Any word denoting a definite part, whether Sub-
stantive, Adjective or Pronoun, is used with the Genitive
of the whole of which it denotes a part.
(a) Substantives :
Sic p a r t e m maj orem copiarum Antonius amisit. Cio.
Thus Antony lost tlie greater part of his forces.
Nemo mortalium omnibus horis sapit. PLIN.
No one of mortals is wise at all times.
(&) Pronouns or Pronominal Adjectives:
Incertum est quam longa nostrumcuj usque vita f utura sit.
It is uncertain how long the life of each one of us will be.
Elephanto beluarumnullaest prudentior. Cic.
Of animals none is more sagacious than the elepJiant.
(c) Numerals and Adjectives of number :
Sulla centum viginti suorum amisit. EUTB.
Sulla lost a hundred and twenty of his men.
Multae harum arbor um mea manu sunt satae. Cic.
Many of tliese trees were planted by my hand.
(d) Comparatives and Superlatives :
Major Neronum. HOK.
TJie elder of the Neros.
Hoc ad te minirne omnium pertinet. Cic.
This belongs to you least of all men.
Totius Graeciae Plato doctissimus erat. Cic.
Plato was the most learned man of all Greece.
GENITIVE CASE 137
Note 1. — The Genitives gentium, of nations, terrarum, of countries,
depend on Adverbs of Place : ubi, where, eo, thitlier, quo, whither,
longe, far:
Ubinam gentium sumus ? Cic.
Where in the world are we ?
Migrandum aliquo terrarum arbitror. Cic.
I think we must migrate to some part of the world.
Note 2. — A Partitive Genitive is found in poetry with Verb* :
Scribe tui gregis hunc. HOB.
Enlist this man in your train.
Fies nobilium tu quoque fontium. HOB.
TJwu too shalt become one of famous fountains.
260 2. Any word denoting quantity may be used with the
Genitive of the whole in which such quantity is contained.
Aliquid pristini roboris conserva*. Cic.
He keeps somewhat of his old strength.
Dimidium facti qui coepit habet. HOB.
He has Jialf done the work who lias begun it.
Catilinae erat satis eloquentiae, sapientiae pa rum. SALL.
Catiline had plenty of eloquence, of wisdom too little.
E. The Objective Genitive.
261 Note. — The terms Subjective and Objective Genitive are used to express
different relations of the Genitive to the Noun on which it depends. Thus
amor patris, the love of a father, may mean either ' the love felt by a father '
(where patris is a Subjective Genitive), or ' the love felt for a father' (where
patris is an Objective Genitive).
262 An Objective Genitive is used with Verbal Substantives
and Adjectives, especially Adjectives in -ax, and Participles
which have the meaning of love, desire, hope, fear, care,
knowledge, ignorance, skill, poicer.
(a) "With Substantives :
Erat insitus menti cognitionis amor. Cic.
Love of knowledge liad been implanted in the mind
13* SYNTAX
Difficilis est cura rerum alienarum. Cic.
The care of other people's affairs is difficult.
(I) With Adjectives :
Avida est periculi virtus. SEN.
Valour is greedy of danger.
Conscia mens recti f amae mendacia risit. Ov.
The mind conscious of right smiled at the lies of rumour.
Homo multarum rerum peritus. Cic.
A man skilled in many things.
Vir propositi tenax. HOB.
A man holding to his purpose.
(c) With Participles :
Quis famulus am ant i or domini quamcanis? COL.
What servant is fonder of his master than the dog is ?
263 Note. — The Genitive of the Gerund is an Objective Genitive : ars
scribendi, the art of writing. An Objective Genitive also follows the
Ablatives causa, gratia, by reason of, by favour of, for the sake of; honoris
causa, on tlie ground of honour ; exempli gratia, for an example.
264 Mei, of me, tui, of thee, sui, of him, her, them, nostri, of
us, vestri, of you, are Objective Genitives :
Niciastua sui memoria delectatur. Crc.
Nicias is delighted by your recollection of him*
Si tibi cura mei, sit tibi cura tui. Ov.
If you care for me, take care of yourself.
The Possessive Pronouns, meus, tuus, suus, noster,
vester, are used as Adjectives : meus liber, my book.
Note. — A Genitive understood in a Possessive Pronoun often has a
Genitive agreeing with it :
Bespublica me a unius opera salva erat. Cic.
The state was saved by my own unaided effort.
GENITIVE CASE 139
265 Most Verbs of remembering, forgetting, reminding, me-
mini, reminiscor, obliviscor, usually take the Genitive,
sometimes the Accusative. Recorder almost always takes
the Accusative, rarely the Genitive.
Animus meminit praeteritorum. Cic.
The mind remembers past things.
Ees adversae admonent religionum. Cic.
Adversity reminds of religious duties.
Nam modo vos animo dulces reminiscor, amici. Ov.
For now I remember you, O friends, dear to my soul.
The Adjectives corresponding to these Verbs, rnemor,
immemor, always take a Genitive.
Omnes immemorem beneficii oderunt. Cic.
All hate one who is forgetful of a kindness.
266 Verbs of pitying, misereor, miseresco, take a Genitive :
Nil nostri miserere. VERQ.
Youpity me not at all.
Arcadii, quaeso, miserescite regis. VERO.
Take pity, I entreat, on tJie Arcadian king.
Note 1.— Miseror, commiseror take an Accusative.
267 Note 2- — Verbs of refraining and ceasing and some Adjectives are used
by poets with a Genitive in imitation of the Greek use ; especially by
Horace :
Abstineto irarum. HOR. Fessi rerum.VERG-
Refrain from angry words. Weary of toil.
Integer vitae, scelerisque purus. HOB.
Virtuous in life and pure from wrong.
140 SYNTAX
PLACE, TIME, AND SPACE.
Place.
268 Place where anything is or happens is generally in the
Ablative case with a Preposition; sometimes without
a Preposition (especially in poetry), an Adjective of place
being attached to the Substantive :
Castra sunt in Italia contra rempublicam collocata. Cic.
A camp has been set up in Italy against the republic,
Gels a sedet Aeolus arce. VEKG.
Aeolus is seated on his high citadel.
Medio sedet insula ponto. Ov.
The island lies in mid ocean.
269 Place whither is in the Accusative with a Preposition ; but
in poetry the Preposition is sometimes omitted :
Caesar in I tali am magnis itineribus contendit. CAES.
Caesar hastened with long marclies into Italy.
Jtaliam fato profugus Lavinaque venit litora. VEBG.
Driven by fatf he came to Italy and the Lavinian shores.
270 Place whence is in the Ablative with ab, ex, or de :
Ex Asia transis in Europam. CUET.
Out of Asia you cross into Europe.
271 In names of towns and small islands, also in donnas and
rus, Place where, whither, or whence is expressed by the
Case without a Preposition.
272 (a) Place where, by the Locative :
Quid Eomae faciam? Juv.
What am I to do at Borne ?
Is habitat Mile ti. TEB.
He lives at Miletus.
Philippus Neapoli est, Lentulus Puteolis. Cic.
Philip is at Naples, Lentulus at Puteoli.
Si domi sum, foris est animus; sin foris sum, animus
est domi. PLAUT.
If I am at liome, my mind is abroad : if I am abroad, my mind is
at home.
PLACE, TIME, AND SPACE 141
273 (6) Place whither, by the Accusative :
Regulus Carthaginem rediit. Cic.
Regulus returned to Cartilage.
Vos ite d o m u m ; ego r u s ibo.
Go ye home ; J will go into the country.
274 (c) Place whence, by the Ablative :
Video rure redeuntem senem. TEB.
J see the old man returning from the country.
Demaratus fugit Tarquinios Corinth o. Cic.
Demaratus fled from Corinth to Tarquinii.
Note. — The Locative doini is used with a Genitive of the Possessor ;
domi Caesaris, at the house of Caesar ; or with the Possessive : domi meae,
at my house.
275 The road by which one goes is in the Ablative :
Ibam forte Via Sacra. HOR.
I was going by chance along the Sacred Way.
Time.
276 Time at which, in answer to the question When ? is ex-
pressed by the Ablative : hieme, in winter; solis occasu,
at sunset :
Ego Capuam veni eo ipso die. Cic.
I came to Capua on that very day.
277 Time within which, generally by the Ablative :
Quicquid est biduo sciemus. Cic.
Whatever it is, we shall know in two days.
278 Time during which, generally by the Accusative :
Pericles quadraginta annos praefuit Athenis. Cic.
Pericles was leader of Athens forty years.
Note 1. — Often by per with the Accusative : per triduum, for three days.
Note 2. — Age is expressed by the participle uatus, born, used with the
Accusative, sometimes with the Ablative :
Cato quinque et octoginta annos natus excessit e vita. Cic.
Cato died aged eighty-Jive yean.
142 SYNTAX
279 How long ago, is in the Accusative or Ablative with abhinc :
Hoc f actum est ferine abhinc biennium. PLAUT.
This was done about two years ago.
Comitia jam abhinc triginta diebus habita. Cic.
The assembly was held thirty days ago.
»
280 To express How long before, How long after, the words
ante, before, post, after, are used either with the Abla-
tive as Adverbs, or with the Accusative as Prepositions,
followed by quam :
Numa annis permultis ante fuit quam Pythagoras. Cic.
Nunia lived very many years before Pythagoras.
(or, Numa ante permultos annos fuit quam.)
Post diem tertium gesta res est quam Clodius dixerat. Cic.
The affair took place three days after Clodius liad spoken.
(or, Die tertio post gesta res est quam.)
Space.
281 Space over which motion takes place, is in the Accusative :
Mili a turn pransi tria repimus. Hon.
Then having had luncheon we crawl three miles.
282 Space which lies between, is in the Accusative or in the
Ablative :
Marathon abest ab Athenis circiter m i 1 i a passuum decem. NEP.
Marathon is distant from Athens about ten miles.
Aesculapii templum quinque milibus passuum ab Epidauro
distat. Lrv.
The temple of Aesculapius is five miles distant from Epidaurus.
283 Space of measurement, answering the questions how high ?
how deep ? how broad ? how long ? is generally in the
Accusative :
Erant muri Babylonis ducenos pedes alti. PLIN.
The walls of Babylon were two hundred feet high.
PREPOSITIONS 143
PKEPOSITIONS.
284 Prepositions, like the case-endings, shew the relations of Nouns to
other words, and they are used where these relations cannot be clearly
expressed by the case-endings alone. Almost all Prepositions take the
Accusative or the Ablative case ; they are usually placed before the Noun.
285 Prepositions with Accusative.
Ad, to, towards, with Accusative of Motion to ; at: ad urbem ire, to go to
the city ; ad summam senectutem, to extreme old age ; ad octingentos
caesi, tliere were slain to the member of 800 ; pugna ad Alliam, Hie battle
at the Allia; ad primam lucem, at daybreak; ad hoc, moreover; ad
tempus,/or a time ; ad verbum, word for word ; nihil ad Atticum, nothing
to (in comparison with) Atticus ; nihil ad rem, nothing to the purpose.
Adversus, Adversum, towards, against, opposite to : adversum Antipolim,
opposite to Antipolis ; reverentia adversus senes, respect towards the aged.
Apud, at, near (used chiefly with persons, rarely with places) : apud me,
at my house ; apud veteres, among tlie ancients ; apud Homtrum, in
Homer's works ; but in Iliade Homeri, in Homer's Iliad.
(ante oculos, before one's eyes ; ante meridiem, before
Ante, before :
j. 7 • j f* 1 noon ; ante aliquem esse, to surriass someone ; post
Post, behind, after : , , , . , ., V ,
{ terga, behind tlie back ; post mortem, after death.
Pone, behind : pone nos, behind us.
Clrcum, Circa, around, about (in Place).
Circa, Circiter, about (in Time, Number).
Circum caput, round tlie, head ; circa forum, around the forum.
Circa primam lucem, about daybreak ; circa, circiter triginta, about thirty.
Cls, Citra, on this side of: cis Alpes, on this side of the Alps.
Trans, across : trans Bhenum ducere, to lead across the Rhine ; trans
Alpes, on thejurt/ier side of the Alps.
Ultra, beyond : ultra Euphratem, beyond the Euphrates ; ultra vires, beyond
their powers.
Contra, against, opposite to: contra hostem, against the enemy; contra
arcem, opposite to the citadel.
Erga, towards (not used of Place) : erga aliquem benevolus, feeling kindly
towards someone.
Extra, outside of, without : extra muros, outside the walls ; extra culpam,
free from blame.
Zntra, within : intra muros, within the walls ; intra viginti dies, within
twenty days.
Inter, between (in Place): during (in Time), among; inter urbem et
Tiberim, between tJie city and tlie Tiber ; inter silvas, among the woods ;
inter cenandum, during dinner ; constat inter omnes, all are agreed ;
inter nos, between ourselves ; inter se amant, they love each other.
144 SYNTAX
Infra, under, beneath : infra caelum, under the sky ; infra dignitatem,
beneath one's dignity.
Supra, over, above : supra terram, above the ground ; supra milia viginti,
more tJutn twenty tliousand.
Juxta, adjoining to, beside : juxta viam, adjoining tlie road ; juxta decs,
next to the gods.
Ob, over against, on account of: mihi ob oculos, before my eyes ; quam ob
rem, wherefore.
Penes, in the power of: penes me, in my power; penes te es? are you in
your senses ?
Per, through (by) : per vias, through the streets ; per vim, by force ; per
me licet, I give leave ; per te deos oro, J pray you by the gods ; per
exploratores certior fio, I ascertain through scouts.
Praeter, beside, past, along : praeter ripam, along tJte bank ; praeter omnea,
beyond all others ; praeter me, except me ; praeter opinionem, contrary
to expectation.
Prope, near : prope amnem, near tlie river ; prope lucem, towards day-
break.
Propter, on account of, (rarely of Place) near, close to : propter aquam,
close to the water's edge ; propter hoc, on that account.
Secundum, next, along, according to (following) : secundum voa, next to
(behind) you ; secundum litus, along the shore ; secundum legem, in
accordance with the law ; secundum nos, in our favour.
Versus, towards (following the Noun) : Italiam versus, towards Italy.
286 Prepositions with Ablative.
A, ab, from, by : ab eo loco, from that place ; ab ortu ad occasum, from
East to West ; procul a patria, far from one's country ; prope abesse
ab, to be near ; a tergo, in t)ie rear ; a senatu stetit, he took the side
of the senate ; hoc a me est, this is in my favour ; ab urbe condita,
from the foundation of Rome ; servus ab epistulis, secretary ; non
ab re fuerit, it will not be irrelevant ; ab ira facere, to do in anger.
Absque, without (rare) : absque vobis esset, if it were not for you.
Clam, unknown to : clam vobis, unknown to you. Clam sometimes takes
the Accusative : clam patrem.
Palam, in sight of : palam omnibus, in sight of all.
Coram, in the presence of : coram populo, in the presence of the peovle.
Cum, with : cum aliquo congruere, certare, to agree, strive with someone ;
magno cum periculo, with great danger; with me, te, nobis, vobis,
often with quo, quibus, cum follows the Pronoun ; mecum, with me.
Sine, without : sine regibus, without kings ; sine dubio, witJunit doubt.
TDe,from (down from), concerning: de monte, down from the mountain; de
die, in the daytime ; de die in diem, from day to day ; unus de rnultis,
one out of many ; de marmore signum, a marble bust ; de pace, con-
cerning peace ; quid de nobis fiet, what will become of us ? de in-
dustria, on purpose ; de more, according to custom ; de integro, anew.
PREPOSITIONS 145
Ex, 33, out of, from : ex urbe, out of the city : e longinquo, from far ;
ex equis pugnant, they fight on horseback ; diem ex die, from day to day ;
ex eo audivi, I heard it from him ; unus ex illis, one of those ; ex quo, front
the time when ; e republica, for the good of the State ; ex sententia,
satisfactorily ; ex parte, in part ; ex occulto, secretly.
Prae, before, in front of (for) (Place rarely, chiefly used in idioms) : prae se
fert speciem viri boni, he wears the semblance of a good man ; prae
nobis beatus es, you are happy compared with us ; prae gaudio ubi sim
nescio, I do not know where I am for joy.
Pro, before, for : pro foribus, before the door ; pro patria mori, to die for
one's country (in defence of) ; mihi pro parente fuit, he was in the place of
a parent to me ; pro certo hoc habui, I held this for certain ; pro rata
parte, in proportion ; pro re, according to circumstances.
Note. — Prae means in advance of; pro, standing for, defending.
Tenus, as far as (always following the Noun) : verbo tenus, so far as the
word goes Sometimes with Genitive : Corcyrae tenus, as far as Cor-
cyra ; especially with a plural Noun : crurum tenus, as far as the legs.
287 Prepositions with Accusative or Ablative.
In, into, to, towards, against ; with Accusative : ibo in Piraeum, I will go
into the Piraeus ; in orbem ire, to go round ; liberalis in milites, liberal
towards the troops ; Cicero in Verrem dixit, Cicero spoke against Verres ;
in aeternum, for ever; in vicem, in turn; in poenam dare, to deliver
to punishment ; venire in conspectum, to come into sight.
Xn, in, among, on ; with Ablative : in urbe Boma, in the city of Rome ; in
oculis esse, to be before one's eyes ; in tempore, at the right time ; in
dicendo, while speaking ; in bonis habere, to count among blessings ; in
Ganymede, in the case of Ganymede ; in eo reprehendere quod, to blame
on the score that.
Sub, up to ; with Accusative : sub montem venire, to come close to the foot
of i\ie mountain ; sub lucem, towards daybreak ; sub haec dicta, just
after these things were said.
Sub, under ; with Ablative : sub terra, underground ; sub monte esse, to
be beneath the mountain ; sub poena, under penalty of.
Subter, underneath : with Ace., subter murum venire, to come close to tlie
wall. Abl., subter litore esse, to be close to the shore.
Super, over; with Accusative: super terram, over the ground; super
omnia, above all.
Super, upon; with Ablative: super foco, on the hearth; super Hectore.
about Hector.
L
I46 SYNTAX
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
Case Construction.
288 The following verbs of feeling take an Accusative of the
person with a Genitive of the cause: miseret, piget,
paenitet, pudet, taedet :
Miseret te aliorum, tui te nee miseret nee pudet. PLAUT.
You pity others, for yourself you have neither pity nor shame.
Me civitatis morum piget taedetque. SALL.
I am sick and weary of the morals of the state.
289 Decet, dedecet take an Accusative of the person with
an Infinitive :
Oratorem irasci minime decet, simulare non dedecet. Cic.
It by no means becomes an orator to feel anger, it is not unbecoming
to feign it.
Si me gemmantia dextra sceptra tenere decet. Ov.
If it befits me to hold in my right liand the jewelled sceptre.
290 Libet, licet, liqnet, contingit, convenit, evenit, expedit,
take a Dative :
Ne libeat tibi quod non licet. Cic.
Let not that please you which is not lawful.
Licet nemini contra patriam dueere exercitum. Cic.
It is not lawful for anyone to lead an army against his country.
281 Interest, it is of importance, it concerns, is used with
the Genitive of the person or thing concerned, but with the
feminine Ablatives mea, tua, sua, nostra, vestra of the
Possessive Pronouns :
Interest omnium recte facere. Cic.
It is for the good of all to do right.
Et tua et mea interest te valere. Cic.
It is of importance to you and to me that you should be well.
IMPERSONAL VERBS 147
292 Refert, it concerns, it matters, is also used with the
feminine Ablatives of the Possessive Pronouns :
Quid mea refert cui serviam? PHAED.
What does it matter to me wliam I serve ?
Note 1. — Rarely with a Genitive : quorum nihil refert, QUINT., whom it
does not at all concern.
Note 2 — The Genitives of Value, magni, parvi, tanti, quanti, pluris, are
often joined with interest and refert :
Ulud mea magni interest te ut videam. Cic.
It is of great importance to me tliat I sliould see you.
Hoc non pluris refert quam si imbrem in cribrum geras. I "LAUT.
This avails no more than if you pour rain-water into a sieve.
293 Pertinet, attinet take an Accusative with ad :
Nihil ad me attinet. TER.
It does not concern me at all.
294 Oportet is used with the Accusative and Infinitive
clause, or with the Conjunctive alone ; rarely with the
Prolative Infinitive (369) :
Legem brevem esse oportet. Cic.
It behoves that a law be brief.
Me ipsum ames oportet, non mea. Cic.
You ought to love me, not my possessions.
Vivere naturae si convenienter oportet. HOB.
If it behoves to live agreeably to nature.
295 Note.— Coepit, debet, desinit, potest, solet are used impersonally with
an Impersonal Infinitive :
Pigere eum facti coepit. JUST.
It began to repent him of his deed.
Perveniri ad summa sine industria non potest. QUINT.
One cannot reach tlie higliest without industry.
296 PASSIVE CONSTRUCTION.
When a sentence is changed from the Active to the
Passive form :
(a) The Object of a Transitive Verb becomes the Subject ;
the Subject becomes the Agent in the Ablative with
the Preposition a or ab :
fNuma leges dedit. Cic. Numa gave laws.
lA.Numa leges datae sunt. Laws were given by Nima.
r.2
I48 SYNTAX
297 (&) Factitive Verbs and Verbs of saying and thinking
become Copulative :
Clodium plebs tribunum The plebs elected Clodius tribune.
creavit.
Clodius a plebe ere at us Clodius was elected tribune by the
est tribunus. plebs.
298 (c) Transitive Verbs which have two Objects in the
Accusative, the Person and the Thing, keep the Ac-
cusative of the Thing in the Passive form :
(Rogas me sententiam. You ask me my opinion.
[ Rogor a te sententiam. I am asked by you my opinion.
299 Intransitive Verbs are used impersonally in the Passive,
300 (a) The Subject of an Intransitive Verb in Passive con-
struction becomes the Agent in the Ablative :
Nos currimus.
A nob is curritur.
301 or the Agent may be omitted :
Sic imu s ad astra. ) „.,
„. ., , ,7 !• Thus we go to the stars,
Sic itur ad astra. VEKG. j
Acriter utrimque usque ad vesperum pugnatumest. CAES.
Tliere was fierce fighting on both sides until the evening.
302 (6) Intransitive Verbs which take the Dative keep it
in the Passive :
Mihi isti nocere non possunt. |
Mihi ab istis nocerinonpotest. Cic. j
Nihil facile persuadetur invitis. QUINT.
The unwilling are not easily persuaded of anything.
Note. — The Ablative of the Agent is used with Quasi-Passive Verbs :
Malo a cive spoliari quam ab hoste venire. QUINT.
I would rather be despoiled by a citizen tlian be sold by a foe.
ADJECTIVES 149
ADJECTIVES.
304 Some Adjectives are used as Substantives to express
persons or things : sapiens, a icise man ; boni, the good ;
Eomani, the Romans ; omnia, all things ; multa, many things ;
bona, goods.
Bonos boni diligunt. Cic.
The good love the good.
Aiunt multum legendum esse, non multa. Cic.
They say that much slwuld be read, not many things.
305 Neuter Adjectives are used for Abstract Substantives :
verum or vera, the truth.
Omne tulit punctum qui miscuit utile dulci. HOR,
He who has combined the useful with the pleasing has won every vote.
306 Some Adjectives, when used as Substantives, can be
qualified by other Adjectives : amicus, friend ; vicinus,
neighbour ; dextra, right hand ; majores, ancestors.
Vetus vicinus ac necessarius. Cic.
An old neighbour and intimate acquaintance.
307 Medius, middle, and superlatives of position in place and
time, as summus, imus, primus, ultimus, are used with a
partitive force : medio ponto, in mid ocean ; ad imam
quercum, at the foot of the oak :
Prima luce summus mons a Labieno tenebatur. CAES.
At dawn of day the mountain top was lield by Labienus.
Note. — The singular forms of ceteri, tlie rest (of which the masc. nom.
sing, is wanting), are similarly used with collective nouns : cetera turba,
the rest of the crowd ; a cetero exercitu, by the rest of the army.
308 Adjectives are used adverbially when they qualify the
Verb rather than the Substantive :
Socrates laetus venenum hausit. SEN.
Socrates drank the poison cheerfully.
Matutinus ara. VERQ. i Vespertinus pete tectum. HOB
Plough at morn. I At eventide go home.
ISO SYNTAX
Hannibal primus in proelium ibat, ultimas excedebat. Liv.
Hannibal was the first to go into battle, tlie last to withdraw.
Comparative and Superlative Adjectives.
309 Superlatives often express a very high degree, and not the
highest :
Ego sum miserior quam tu, quae es miserrima. Cic.
I am more wretclied than you, wlw are very wretcJied.
310 Comparatives may also express a certain degree, without
special comparison : longior, rather long ; senior, elderly.
After a Comparative with quam, a second Comparative
is often used :
Aemilii contio fuit verier quam gratior populo. Liv.
The liarangue of Aemilius was more truthful than popular.
Note. — Comparatives and Superlatives are often strengthened by adverbs
and adverbial phrases : multo carior, much dearer ; longe carissimus.
far dearest ; vel minimus, the very least ; quam maximus, the greatest
possible.
Numeral Adjectives.
811 Cardinals : Unus, apart from other Numerals, is used only
to give emphasis ; it often means the one of all others :
Demosthenes u n u s eminet inter omnes oratores. Cic.
Demosthenes is pre-eminent among all orators.
Mille is used as an indeclinable Adjective; sometimes
as a Substantive taking the Genitive after it ; milia is
always used as a Substantive, followed by a Genitive :
Mille greges illi. Ov. Mille annorum. PLAUT.
He had a thousand flocks. A thousand years.
Quattuor milia hominum Capitolium occupavere. Lrv.
Four thousand men seized the Capitol.
If a smaller number is added to milia, the compound
number becomes adjectival : tria milia et sexcenti
homines, three thousand six hundred men.
312 Ordinals are used in expressing time : but in compound
numbers unus is used for primus : uno et octogesimo
anno, in the eighty-first year :
Octavus annus est ex quo Britanniam vicistis. TAC.
It is the eighth year since you conquered "Britain.
PRONOUNS 151
Note. — Unus, alter, tertius, &c., are used for a first, a second, a third,
where the order is of no importance, as distinguished from the regular
ordinals, primus, secundus, tertius, which can only mean the first, the
second, &c.
313 Distributives express how many each or at a time :
Militibus quini et viceni denarii dati sunt. Liv.
Twenty-five denarii were given to each soldier.
Note 1. — With a Substantive of plural form Distributives are used, but
the plural of unus is used instead of singuli :
Una castra jam facta ex binis videbantur. CAES.
One camp now seemed to have been formed from two.
Note 2. — Bini is used for a pair :
Pamphilua binos habebat scyphos sigillatos. Cic.
Pamphilus had in use a pair of embossed cups. *
314 After plus, amplius, minus, quam is often left out before
Numerals :
Bomani paulo plus sexcenti ceciderunt. Lrv.
Rather more than six hundred Romans fell.
PRONOUNS.
315 The Personal Pronoun is usually expressed only by the
Verb ending, but is sometimes added for emphasis :
Ego reges ejeci, vos tyrannos introducitis. Cic.
I expelled kings, ye are bringing in tyrants.
Note. — Nos is often used for ego, and noster for meus, but vos is not
used for tu, nor vester for tuus.
316 The Reflexive Pronoun se, sese, BTU, sibi, refers to the
Subject hi a Simple Sentence (464) :
Fur telo se defendit. Cic. | Ira sui impotens est. SEN.
The thief defends himself
with a weapon.
Anger is not master of itself.
152 SYNTAX
I r a t u 8 cum ad s e rediit, s i b i turn irascitur. PUBL. SYR.
Wlien an angry man has come to himself he is angry with himself.
Deforme est de se ipso praedicare. Cic.
It is bad taste to boast of oneself.
Note 1. — There is no [Reciprocal Pronoun in Latin ; se with Inter
Is used reciprocally: inter se amant, they love each other.
Note 2. — In the First and Second Persons, me, te, are used reflexively
withipse; me ipse consolor, I console myself.
317 The Possessive suns, formed from the Beflexive, is used
to express his own, their own, when emphasis is required,
and usually refers to the Subject of the Verb :
Nemo rem suam emit.
No one buys wliat is his own.
sometimes to other cases if the context shows that it
cannot be referred to the Subject :
S ui s flammis delete Fide n as. Lrv.
With its own flames destroy Fidenae.
Suus is especially used in combination with quisque :
Suus cuique erat locus attributus. CAES.
To each man his own place had been assigned.
318 Ejus is the Possessive used of the Third Person where
no emphasis is required, and does not refer to the Subject.
Chilius te rogat, et ego ejus rogatu. Cic.
Chilius asks you, and I at his request.
Note. — The Possessive Pronouns are often omitted when the meaning is
clear without them : fratrem amat, he loves his brother.
319 Hie, ille are often used in contrast : hie usually meaning
the latter, ille the former:
Quocumque adspicio, nihil est nisi pontus et aer,
nubibushic tumidus, fluctibus ille minax. Ov.
Wfiithersoever J look, there is nought but sea and sky,
the latter heaped with clouds, the former threatening with billows.
Note. — Iste is sometimes contemptuous : quid sibi i s t i miseri volunt ?
What do those wretched ones want ? Ille may imply respect : philosophus
ille, that famous philosopher. Is often is the antecedent to qui: is
cujus, he whose; eum cui, him to whom.
PRONOUNS 153
320 Ipse, self, is of all the three Persons, with or without a
Personal Pronoun : ipse ibo, / icill go myself.
Note. — Ipse sometimes means of one's own accord : ipsi veniunt, they
come of their own accord. Ipse, ipsa, also stand for the chief person
(master, mistress) : the scholars of Pythagoras used to say 'Ipse dixit,'
The master himself said it. Sometimes a superlative is formed : i p s i s-
sima verba, the very exact words.
321 Idem, the same, is of all the three Persons ; with qui it
expresses the same . ... as. It may often be translated
at the same time ; also :
Ego vir fortis, idemque philosophus. Cic.
J a brave man, and also a philosopher.
322 Of the Indefinite Pronouns Quis, siquis, numquis, quispiam,
aliquis, quidam, the most definite is quidam, the least so quis.
Quis, qui, any, cannot begin a sentence ; they often follow
si, num, ne.
Si mala condiderit in quern quis carmina jus est. HOB.
If anyone lias composed malicious verses on anotJier, tJiere is a
remedy at law.
Si quid te volam, ubi eris? PLAUT.
If I want anything of you, wJiere will you be ?
Aliquis means some one: dicat aliquis, suppose some
one to say; si vis esse aliquis, if you wish to be somebody.
Quidam means a certain person (known but not named) :
Accurrit quidam, notus mihi nomine tantum. HOB.
A certain man runs up, known to me only by name.
Nescio quis, some one or other (I know not who), used as if
one word, forms an Indefinite Pronoun :
Nescio quid mihi animus praesagit mali. TEB.
My mind forebodes I know not what evil.
154 SYNTAX
323 Quisquam (Substantive), ) „
•rm ,AJ- L- [ any at all,
VUus (Adjective) : j
are often used after a negative word, or a question ex-
pecting a negative answer :
Nee amet quemquam nee ametur ab ullo. Juv.
Let him not love anyone nor be loved by any.
Non ullus aratro dignus honos. VERG.
Not any due honour (is given) to the plough.
Note.— Quisquam and ullus are used after si when negation is implied,
or with comparatives :
Aut nemo aut, si quisquam, Cato sapiens fuit. Cic.
Either no man was wise, or, if any, Cato was.
324 Quivis, quilibet, any you like :
Quivis homo potest quemvis de quolibet rumorem pro*
ferre. Cic.
Any man can put forth any report of anybody.
Non cuivis homini contingit adire Corinthum. HOB.
It does not happen to every man to go to Corinth.
325 Quisque, each (severally), is often used with se, suus :
Sibi quisque habeant quod suum est. PLAUT,
Let tJiem have each for himself what is his own.
With Superlatives it expresses every :
Epicureos doctissimus quisque contemnit. Cic.
All the most learned men despise tlie Epicureans.
It also distributes Ordinal numbers :
Quinto quoque anno Sicilia tota censetur. Cic.
A census of all Sicily is taken every fifth year.
326 Uterque, each (of two), both, can be used with the Genitive
of Pronouns ; but with Substantives it agrees in case :
Uterque parens. Ov.
Both father and mother.
Utroque vestrum delector. Cic.
I am delighted with both of you.
327 liter, which (of two), is Interrogative: utermelior? which
is the better ?
Uter utri insidias fecit ? Cic.
Which of the two laid an ambush for which ?
Note. — Utri, plural, is used for which of two parties, utrique for both
parties. So alteri . . . alteri, one party, the other party.
PRONOUNS
155
328 Alter, the one, the other (of two), die second, is the Demon-
strative of uter: alter ego, a second self.
Quicquid negat alter, et alter; affirmant pariter. HOR.
IVhatever the one denies, so does the other ; they affirm alike.
329 Alius, another (of any number), different :
Fortuna nunc mihi, nunc alii benigna. HOB.
Fortune, kind now to me, now to another.
Alius, alius, repeated in two clauses, mean one . . . another-,
alii, alii (plural), some . . . others :
Aliud est maledicere, aliud accusare. Cic.
It is one thing to speak evil, another to accuse.
Alii Demosthenem laudant, alii Ciceronem.
Some praise Demostlienes, others Cicero.
Note 1. — Alius repeated in different cases in the same sentence, or with
one of its derived adverbs, has an idiomatic use :
Alii alia sentiunt.
Some think one thing, some another.
Illi alias aliud isdem de rebus judicant. Cic.
They judge differently, at different times, about the same things.
Note 2. — Alius expresses comparison and difference : nil aliudquam.
nothing else tlian ; alius Lysippo, HOK., other tlian Lysippus.
330 The Relative qui, quae, quod, is of all three Persons,
and when the Antecedent is a Noun either expressed or
understood, it may be regarded as standing between two
Cases of the same Noun, and agreeing with the second Case.
(a) Sometimes both Cases are expressed :
Erant itinera duo, quibus itineribus exire possent. CAES.
TJiere were two roads by which they might go forth.
(fy usually the second is omitted :
Animum rege qui, nisi paret, imperat. HOB.
Rule the temper, which, unless it obeys, commands.
(c) sometimes the first, in poetry :
Sic tibi dent nymphae quae levet u n d a sitim. Ov.
So may the nymphs give thee water to assuage thirst.
156 SYNTAX
(d) sometimes both are omitted :
Sunt quibu s in satira videor nimis acer. HOR.
There are some to whom I seem too keen in satire.
331 The following scheme shows this principle fully :
(1) vir quern virum vides rex est (both Cases expressed).
(2) vir quern vides rex est (second Case omitted) (usual form).
(3) ...quern virum vides rex est (first Case omitted).
(4) . . . quem vides rex est (both Cases omitted).
332 Note 1.— If the Eelative is the Subject of a Copulative Verb, it often
agrees in Gender and Number with the Complement :
Thebae, quod Boeotiae caput est. Lrv.
Thebes, which is the capital of Boeotia.
Note 2. — When an Adjective qualifying the Antecedent is emphatic, as
unus, solus, or is a Superlative, it is often attracted to the Clause of the
Eelative, agreeing with it in Case :
Si veniat Caesar cum copiis quas habet firmissimas. Cic.
Should Caesar come with tJie very strong forces that lie lias.
Note 3. — If the Antecedent consists of two or more Nouns, or is a
Collective Noun, the rules for the Agreement of the Eelative are the same
as for the Agreement of Adjectives with the Composite Subject (see 198, 199).
Note 4. — If the Eelative refers to a Sentence or Clause it is Neuter;
sometimes id quod is used, id being in apposition to the Clause :
Diem consumi volebat, id quod est factum. Cic.
He wished the day to be wasted, which came to pass.
Note 5.— The Eelative clause sometimes comes first :
Quam quisque norit artem, in hac se exerceat. Cio.
Let everyone practise the art which he knows.
(For other uses of the Eelative see 403, 450, 451.)
CORRELATION.
333 Pronouns and Pronominal Adverbs are said to be
Correlatives when they correspond to one another as
Antecedent and Eelative (102).
334 The Pronoun Antecedent to qui is usually the Demon-
strative is ; sometimes hie, ille, idem :
Is minimo eget qui minimum cupit. PUB. STB.
He wants for least wJio desires least.
TENSES 157
335 Tails . . . qualis, means of such a kind . . . as ; tantus . . .
quantus, as much or as great ... as : tot ... quot, as
many . . . as:
Talis estqualem tu eum esse scripsisti. Cic.
He is such as you wrote word that he ivas.
Tan to brevius omne, quanto felicius tempus. PLIN.
Tlie Imppicr a time is, so much the sJiorter is it.
Quot homines, tot sententiae. TEK.
So many men, so many minds.
Tarn . . . quam, means so ... as or as ... as ; ut . . . ita,
means as ... so :
Tarn ego ante fui liber quam gnatus tuus. PLAUT,
I was formerly as free as your son.
Ut optasti, ita est. Cic.
As you wislied, so it is.
TENSES.
336 The Present expresses :
(1) What happens at the present moment : jacio, 7
throw.
(2) What is going on at the present time : scribo, 1
am writing.
(3) What is habitually or alwa}< s : quod semper movetur
aeternum est, that which is always in motion is
eternal.
337 The Historic Present is used for a Past by orators,
historians, and poets, to give variety, or call up a vivid
picture :
Dimisso senatu decenrviri prodeuntin contionem abdicantque
se magistratu. Liv.
WJien tJie senate was dismissed the decemvirs go forth to the
assembled people and resign office.
338 Note.— Dum, while, is used with the Historic Present in speaking of
Past Time: Dum Romani consultant, Saguntum oppugnabatur, Lrv.,
}Vhile the Romans were consulting, Saguntum was being besieged (see 430).
With jam, jamcliu (dudum, pridem) the Present expresses what has long
been and still continues: Jamdudum video, Hon., I have seen it this
long time.
158 SYNTAX
339 The Perfect expresses :
As Primary, from the point of the present moment
what has just been done : scripsi, I have written.
As Historic, simply a past action, which happened at
some indefinite time : scripsi, I wrote.
Note. — The Perfect is used in poetry to express past existence which
has ceased: Fuimus Troes ; fuit Ilium, VEBG., We Trojans were (i.e. are
no longer) ; Troy was (exists no longer),
340 The Imperfect expresses what was continued or repeated in
past time, as opposed to the completed or momentary
past:
Aequi se in oppida receperunt murisque se tenebant. Lrv.
The Aequi retreated into their towns and remained within their
walls.
Carthagine quotannis bini reges creabantur. Nep.
At Carthage two rulers were elected annually.
341 The Future Simple is used in Latin where in English the
Present is used with Future meaning :
Ut voles me esse, ita ero. PLAUT.
As you wish me to be, so I shall be.
342 The Future Perfect expresses action to be completed in the
future ; if two actions are spoken of, one of which will
take place before the other, the prior one is in the
Future Perfect :
Ut sementem feceris, ita metes. Cic.
As you shall have sown, so will you reap.
343 Note. — The Romans, in writing letters, often speak of the time of writing
in a Past Tense, because it would be past when a letter would be received.
Kes, cum haec scribebam, erat in extremum adducta dis-
crimen. Cic.
At the time I write, the affair has been brought to a crisis.
MOODS 159
MOODS,
344 The Indicative is the Mood which makes a statement with
regard to a fact, or to something which is dealt with by
the speaker as a fact.
345 Note. — Verbs expressing duty, fitness, possibility, as possum, debeo,
decet, licet, oportet, are often used in the Indicative tenses of past time, to
express that it was proper or possible at that time to do something which
in fact was not done. Phrases such as necesse est, f uit ; aequum, iongum,
melius, satius est, fuit, are similarly used in the Indicative (440 c) :
Hie tamen hanc mecum p o t e r a s requiescere noctem. VEBG.
Yet you might have rested here with me this night.
Et vellem et fuerat melius. VERG.
I should liave wislied, and it would have been better.
Longum est ea dicere : sed hoc breve dicam. Cic.
It would be tedious to speak of those things, but this little I will
say.
Compare with these :
Non Asiae nomen obiciendum Murenae fuit. Cic.
Murena should not liave been reproaclied with tlie mention of Asia.
346 The Imperative is the Mood of positive command or direct
request :
I, sequere Italiam. VEBG. Pergite, adulescentes. Cic.
Go, seek Italy. Proceed, 0 youths.
347 Prohibitions in the second person are expressed by noli with
the Infinitive ; or, more peremptorily, by ne with the
Perfect Conjunctive:
Nolite id velle quod fieri non potest. Cic.
Do not wisJi ivhat cannot be.
Ne feceris quod dubitas. PLIX.
Never do anything about which you are doubtful.
348 but in poetry ne is often used with the Imperative :
Equo ne credit e, Teucri. VERG.
Do not trust the horse, O Trojans.
SYNTAX
349 The forms in -to, -tote are specially used in laws ; but
they are also often used for emphasis.
Eegio imperio duo sun to, iique consules appellantor. Cic.
Let there be two with royal power, and let them be called consuls.
350 Not6 1- — The following Imperatives are joined with the Infinitive or
Conjunctive of other Verbs to form Imperatives ; fac, fac ut, cura ut, with
the Conjunctive ; memento with Infinitive or Conjunctive. In prohibitions
fac ne, cave, take the Conjunctive ; and in poetry fuge, mitte, parce, take
the Infinitive :
Magnum fac animum habeas. Cic.
Mind you have a lofty spirit.
Note 2. — For a courteous Imperative the Future Indicative is often used :
facies ut sciam, Cic., you will please let me know.
351 The Conjunctive Mood makes a statement or asks a question,
not so much with regard to a fact as with regard to
something thought of or imagined by the speaker, often
with some condition expressed or implied. It expresses
a modified or conditional command or desire.
Note.— The Conjunctive is so called because it joins with the other
moods and adds to their power of expression.
The Conjunctive has two general uses :
352 Pure or Independent : velim, I could wish ; vellem, I
could have wished.
353 Subjunctive or Dependent on another Verb : cura
ut facias, take care that you do it.
354 The Pure Conjunctive must generally be rendered in
English with auxiliaries, may, might, could, would, should.
Note. — The Conjunctive makes a Statement :
355 (a) With a condition expressed or implied (Conditional use) :
Ita amicos pares. Cic.
Thus you may get friends.
Crederes victos. Liv.
You would have supposed them conquered (from their appearance).
356 (°) Or in a modified tone, to avoid positiveness (Potential use) :
Dub it em haud equidem. VEBG.
For my part I should not hesitate.
MOODS. 161
The Perfect Conjunctive is especially so used :
Forsitan quispiam dixerit. Cic.
Perhaps someone may say.
357 (c) Conveying an admission or supposition (Concessive use):
Haec sint falsa sane. Cic. Fuerit malus civis. Cic.
Granting this to be quite Suppose he was a bad citizen,
untrue.
358 It asks a Question (Deliberative use) :
Faveas tuhosti? Cic. Quid facerem? VEEQ.
Would you befriend an WJiat was I to do?
enemy ?
It expresses a Desire or Command :
359 (a) A Wish or Prayer (Optative use) : often with utinam, Oh tJiatl
Sis felix. HOB. Utinam potuissem.
May you be happy. Oh that I had been able.
Doceas iter et sacra ostia pandas. VERG.
Pray shew me tlie road and open the sacred doors.
360 (&) An Exhortation (Hortative use) chiefly in the 1st Person Plural
Amemus patriam, pareamus senatui. Cic.
Let us love our country, let iis obey the senate.
361 (c) A modified Command (Jussive use) in the 3rd Person :
Sit sermo lenis. Cic.
Let speech be calm.
Vilicus ne sit ambulator. CATO.
Let not a steward be a loiterer.
362 From the Jussive use comes a further use of the Conjunctive, by
which the expression of a wish is conveyed into past time. This
use is chiefly in the 2nd Person, but extends also to the others .'
Bern tuam curares. TEB.
You should Jiave been minding your own business.
Eestitisses, repugnasses, mortem oppetisses. Cic.
You sliould have resisted, fought against it, braved death.
363 The use of the 2nd Person in the Pres. Conj. is often indefinite,,
not addressed to anyone in particular, but expressing a generai
maxim :
Agere decet quod agas considerate. Cic.
Whatever you do, it is proper to do it with consideration.
M
162 SYNTAX
THE VERB INFINITE.
364 The parts of the Verb Infinite have some of the uses of
Verbs, some of the uses of Nouns.
THE INFINITIVE.
365 The Infinitive as a Verb has Tenses, Present, Past, or
Future, it governs cases and is qualified by Adverbs ; as a
Noun it is neuter, indeclinable, used only as Nominative or
Accusative.
366 The Infinitive in the Nominative may be the Subject of
Impersonal Verbs, or of verbs used impersonally :
Juvat ire et Dorica castra visere. VERG.
It is pleasant to go and view tlie Doric camp.
Ipsum philosophari nunc displicet. Cic.
The very study of philosophy now displeases.
Dulce et decorum est pro patria mori. HOB.
To die for one's country is sweet and seemly.
Non vivere bonum est sed bene vivere. SEN.
It is not living which is a good, but living well.
Note. — Occasionally the Infinitive is the Complement :
Homo cui vivere est cogitare. Cic.
Man to whom to live is to think.
367 The Infinitive is often one of the two Accusatives
depending on an Active Verb of saying or thinking :
Errare, nescire, decipi et malum et turpe ducimus. Cic.
To err, to be ignorant, to be deceived, we deem both unfortunate and
disgraceful.
368 Note. — Sometimes, though rarely, it is a simple Object :
Hoc rider e meum nulla tibi vendo Hiade. PEBS.
This laughter of mine I won't sell you for an Hia&,
THE INFINITIVE 163
369 The Prolative Infinitive is used to carry on the construc-
tion of Indeterminate and some other Verbs (190) :
Verbs of possibility, duty, habit : possum, queo, nequeo,
debeo, soleo ;
„ of wishing, purposing : volo, nolo, malo, cupio,
opto, statuo;
,, of beginning, ceasing, endeavouring, continuing,
hastening ; coepi, begin ; desino, cease ; conor,
try ; pergo, proceed ;
„ of knowing, teaching, learning : scio, disco, doceo.
Ego plus quam f eci f a c e r e non possum. Cic.
I cannot do more than I Jiave done.
Solent diu cogitare qui magna volunt gerere. Cic.
They are wont to reflect long who wish to do great things.
Praecedere coepit. Hon.
He begins to walk on.
Sapere aude. HOB.
Dare to be wise.
Note. — The Infinitive of a Copulative Verb used Prolatively is followed
by a Complement in the Nominative :
Socrates par ens philosophiae jure dici potest. Cic.
Socrates may rightly be called tlie parent of philosophy.
Vis f ormosa videri. HOK.
You wish to seem beautiful.
370 The Prolative Infinitive is also used with the Passives of
Verbs of saying and thinking :
Barbara narratur venisse venefica tecum. Ov.
A barbarian sorceress is said to have come with tnee.
Aristides unus omnium justissimus fuisse traditur. Cic.
Aristides is recorded to liave been the one man of all most just.
Note. — This construction is called the Nominative with Infinitive, and is
used with most Passive Verbs of saying and thinking. A few, however,
narror, nuntior, trador, are used Impersonally— always in the Perfect, and
often in the Present and Imperfect :
Galbam et Africanum doctos fuisse tr adit um est. Cic.
It has been handed down that Galba and Africanus were learned.
164 SYNTAX
S71 With an Infinitive Perfect Passive esse is often omitted :
Pons in Ibero prope effectus nuntiabatur. CAES.
The bridge over the Ebro was announced to be nearly finished.
Titus Manlius ita locutus fertur. Lrv.
Titus Manlius is reported to have thus spoken.
372 The Historic Infinitive is the Present Infinitive used
by historians in vivid description for the Imperfect In-
dicative :
Multi sequi, fugere, occidi, capi. SALL.
Many were following, flying, being slain, being captured.
373 An Infinitive often follows an Adjective Prolatively,
chiefly in poetry :
Audax omnia perpeti. HOB.
Insuetus vinci. Liv.
Bold to endure all things. Unused to be conquered.
Figere doctus erat sed tendere doctior arcus. Ov.
He was skilled in piercing (with a dart), but more skilled in
bending the bow.
GERUND AND GERUNDIVE.
374 The Genitive, Dative, and Ablative of the Gerund, and
the Accusative with a Preposition, are used as Cases of the
Infinitive.
375 The Accusative of the Gerund follows some Prepositions,
especially ad, ob, inter :
Ad bene vivendum breve tempus satis est longum. Cic.
For living well a short time is long enough.
Mores puerorum se inter ludendum detegunt. QUINT.
The characters of boys show themselves in their play.
376 The Genitive of the Gerund depends on some Abstract
Substantives, and Adjectives which take a Genitive :
Cupidus te audiendi sum. Cic.
Ars scribendi discitur.
Tlie art of wiiing is learnt.
I am desirous of hearing you.
GERUND AND GERUNDIVE
165
377 The Dative of the Gerund follows a few Verbs, Adjec-
tives, and Substantives implying help, use, fitness :
Par est disserendo. Cic.
He is equal to arguing.
Dat operam legendo.
He gives attention to reading.
Note. — Observe the phrase : solvendo non est, lie is insolvent.
378 The Ablative of the Gerund is of Cause or Manner, or it
follows one of the Prepositions ab, de, ex, in, cum :
Fugiendo vincimus.
We conquer by flying.
De pugnando deliberant.
TJiey deliberate about fighting.
379 If the Verb is Transitive, the Gerundive is more often
used than the Gerund, agreeing with the Object as an
Adjective. It takes the Gender and Number of the Object,
but the Object is drawn into the Case of the Gerundive.
The following examples show how the Gerundive takes the place of the
Gerund.
Gerund
Ad petendum pacem
Petendi pacem
Petendo pacem
Petendo pacem
Ad mutandum leges : «
Mutandi leges
Mutando leges
Gerundive
ad petendam pacem
petendae pacis
petendae paci
petenda pace
ad mutandas leges
mutandarum legum
mutandis legibus
in order to seek peace.
of seeking peace.
for seeking peace.
by seeking peace.
in order to change laws
of changing laws.
for or by changing laws.
Note 1. — In order to seek peace may also be rendered by the Genitive
of the Gerund or Gerundive with causa or gratia : pacem petendi causa or
petendae pacis causa. (See 423, note 3.)
380 Note 2. — The Dative of the Gerundive is used with names of office to
chow the purpose of the office :
Comitia regi ere an do. Liv.
An assembly for electing a king.
Tres viri agris dividendis. FLORUS.
Three commissioners for dividing lands.
166 SYNTAX
381 ' The Gerund and Gerundive are often used to express
that something ought or is to be done, the Dative of the
Agent being expressed or understood (222).
382 If the Verb is Intransitive the Gerund is used imper-
sonally :
Eundum est.
Mihi eundum est.
One must go. I must go,
Suo cuique judicio est utendum. Cic.
Each must use his own judgment.
383 If the Verb is Transitive the Gerundive is used in
agreement :
Caesari omnia uno tempore erant agenda. CAES.
All things had to be done by Caesar at one time.
Principio s e d e s apibus statioque p e t e n d a. VEHO.
First of all a site and station must be sought for the bees.
Note 1. — If an Intransitive Verb has an Object in the Dative, the Agent
is in the Ablative with the preposition a or ab : patriae est a te con-
Bulendum, you must consult for your country.
384 Note 2. — After some Verbs, as do, trado, euro, the Gerundive is used in
the Accusative to express that something is caused to be done :
Caesar pontem faciendum curat. CAES.
Caesar causes a bridge to be made.
SUPINES.
385 The Supines are also used as Cases of the Infinitive :
386 The Supine in -urn is an Accusative after Verbs of
motion, expressing the purpose :
Lusum it Maecenas, dormitum ego. HOB.
Maecenas goes to play, I to sleep.
Athenienses miserunt Delphos consultum. NEP.
The Athenians sent to Delphi to consult.
387 with the Infinitive iri, used impersonally, it forms a
Future Passive Infinitive :
Aiunt urbem captum iri.
They say that the city will be taken.
Note. — Literally, they say there is a going to take the city.
PARTICIPLES 167
388 The Supine in -u (Dative and Ablative) is used with some
Adjectives, such as facilis, dulcis, turpis, and the Substan-
tives fas, nefas : turpe factu, disgraceful to do.
Hoc fas est dictu.
It is lawful to say this. '
Libertas, dulce auditu nomen. Liv.
Freedom, a name sweet to hear.
Nee visu facilis, nee dictu affabilis ulli. VERQ.
One not easy for any to gaze on, or to address.
PAKTICIPLES.
389 The Present and Perfect Participles of some Verbs are
used as Adjectives :
Homo frugi ac dili gens. Cic.
A thrifty and industrious man.
0 d o r a t a cedrus. VERG.
The fragrant cedar.
390 Most Participles which can be used as Adjectives have
Comparison : pietate praestantior, more excellent in piety •
nocentissima victoria, a very hurtful victory.
391 A Participle, agreeing with a Noun in any Case, often
expresses within one sentence what might be expressed
by a dependent or a co-ordinate clause :
Saepe sequens agnam lupus est a voce retentus. Ov.
Often, when following a lamb, the wolf has been held back by his
voice.
Elephantes, amnem transituri, minimos praemittunt. PLIN.
Elephants, intending to cross a river, send forward the smallest ones.
Timotheus a patre acceptam gloriam multis auxit virtutibus.
NEP.
Timotheus increased by many virtues the glory which lie had
received from his fatlier.
Sacras jaculatus arces terruit urbem. HOR.
He has smitten the sacred towers and terrified the city.
Caesar milites hortatus castra movit. CAES.
Caesar addressed the soldiers, and moved his camp.
'68 SYNTAX
392 Note 1.— Only Deponent Verbs have an Active Perfect Participle ; in
other Verbs its place is supplied either by a Finite Verb Active with the
Belative or a Particle, or by the Ablative Absolute Passive :
The enemy, liaving thrown away their arms, fled,
can be expressed in Latin by
Iqui arma abjecerant \
cum arma abjecissent hterga verterunt.
armis abjectis i
393 Note 2 — Sometimes when a Substantive has a Perfect Participle in
agreement, the Substantive must be rendered in English by a Genitive,
the Participle by a Substantive : ademptus Hector, the removal of Hector ;
ante urbem conditam, before the foundation of the city,
Terra mutata non mutat mores. Lrv.
Change of country does not change cltaracter.
Note on the Verb Infinite.
394 The Infinitive, the Gerund, the Supine in -um and the
Participles govern the same Cases as the Finite Verbs to
which they belong.
Ingenuas didicisse fideliter artes emollit mores. Ov.
To have truly learned the liberal arts refines the diameter.
Cupio satisfacere reipublicae. Cic.
I desire to do my duty to the republic.
Bomae privatis jus non erat vocandi senatum. Lrv.
At Rome private persons Iwd not the right of summoning the senate.
Ast ego non Graiis servitum matribus ibo. VEBO».
But I will not go to be a slave to Greek matrons.
Ausi omnes immane nefas, ausoque potiti. VERO.
All having dared monstrous impiety and having accomplisJied
what they dared.
ADVEBBS.
395 Adverbs show how, when, and where the action of the
Verb takes place; they also qualify Adjectives or other
Adverbs : recte facere, to do rightly ; hue nunc venire, to
come hither now ; facile primus, easily first ; valde celeriter,
very swiftly.
Many words are both Adverbs and Prepositions, as ante,
before, post, after :
Adverbs : multo ante, long before ; paullo post, shortly
after.
ADVERBS 169
Prepositions : ante oculos, "before one's eyes; post tergum,
behind one's back.
Joined with quam they form Conjunctions : antequam,
before that . . . postquam, after that (see 428, 431).
396 Negative Adverbs are non, baud, ne.
Non, not, is simply negative :
Nives in alto mari non cadunt. PLIN.
No snow falls on the high seas.
Haud, not, is used with Adjectives, with other Adverbs,
and a few Verbs of knowing and thinking : baud aliter,
baud secus, not otherwise ; res baud dubia, no doubtful matter ;
haud scio an verum sit, 7 am inclined to think it is true.
Ne is used with the second person of the Perfect Con-
junctive for prohibitions (347) : ne transieris Hiberum (Liv.),
do not cross the Ebro. "With the second person of the Present
Conjunctive ne often means lest : ne forte credas (HoR.), lest
by chance you believe, or that you may not by chance believe.
397 Two Negatives make an Affirmative, as in English : non
sum nescius, / am not unaicare, that is I am aware. Non
nemo means, somebody ; nemo non, everybody ; non-nihil,
something ; nihil non, everything.
In ipsa curia non nemo hostis est. Cic.
In the very senate-house there is some enemy.
Nemo Arpinas non Plancio studuit. Cic.
Every citizen of Arpinum teas zealous for Plancius.
Note 1. — Neque, nee, nor (Conjunction) is used for and not ;
Eapimur in errorem, neque vera cernimus. Cic.
We are hurried into error, and do not perceive truth.
So also are generally rendered :
and no one, nee quisquam, nee ullus ;
and nothing, nee quidquam ;
and never, nowhere, nee umquam, nee usquam.
170 SYNTAX
398 Note 2. — Ne is used with quidem to express not even, and the word or
words on which emphasis is laid comes between them :
Ne ad Catonem quidem provocabo. Cic.
Not to Cato even will I appeal.
1 Not only not . . ., but not even' is non modo non . . . sed ne . . . quidem
(or ne . . . quidem, non modo non).
Non modo tibi non irascor, sed ne reprehendo quidem factum
tuum. Cic.
J am not only not angry with you, but do not even blame your act.
If the predicate of both clauses is the same, it is often expressed only
in the second clause with ne . . . quidem, and also the negative is omitted
in the first clause — i.e. non modo is used rather than non modo non.
Assentatio non modo amico, sed ne libero quidem digna est. Cic.
Flattering is unworthy, not only of a friend, but even of a free man.
CONJUNCTIONS.
399 Conjunctions connect words, sentences, and clauses.
400 (1) Co-ordinative Conjunctions connect two or more
Nouns in the same case :
Miratur portas strepitumque et strata viarum. VEBO.
He marvels at the gates and the noise and the pavements.
E t nostra respublica e t omnia regna. Cic.
Both our own republic and all kingdoms.
Sine imperio nee domus ulla nee civitas stare potest. Cic.
Without government neither any house nor any State can be stable.
Or they join two or more Simple Sentences (402) :
Note 1. — Ant . . . ant are used to mark an emphatic distinction ;
vel . . . vel where the distinction is of little importance :
Aut Caesar aut nullus.
Either Caesar or nobody.
Vel magna, vel potius maxima. Cic.
Great, or rather very great.
Note 2. — Sed distinguishes with more or less opposition, or passes to a
fresh point ; while antem corrects slightly or continues :
Non scholie sed vitae discimua. SEN.
We learn not for the school but for life.
INTERJECTIONS 1 7 1
Note 3. — Autem, enim, quldem, vero, never begin a sentence :
Neque enim tu is es qui quid sis nescias. Cic.
For you are not the man to be ignorant of your own nature.
401 (2) Subordinative Conjunctions join Dependent Clauses
to the Principal Sentence. (See Compound Sentence.)
Co-ordination.
402 "When two or more Sentences are joined together by
Co-ordinative Conjunctions, so as to form part of one Sen-
tence, they are said to be Co-ordinate Sentences, and each is
independent in its construction.
Et mini sunt vires et mea tela nocent. Ov.
J too am not powerless, and my weapons hurt.
Gyges a nullo videbatur, ipse autem omnia videbat. Cic.
Gyges was seen by no one, but Jie himself saw all things.
403 The Eelative Pronoun with a Verb in the Indicative often
forms a Co-ordinate Sentence :
Ees loquitur ipsa, q u a e semper valet plurimum. Cic.
The fact itself speaks, and this always avails most.
Constantes amici sunt eligendi, cujus generis magna est penuria. Cic.
Firm friends are to be cJwsen, but of such there is great scarcity.
INTERJECTIONS.
404 Interjections are apart from the construction of the
sentence. 0, ah, eheu, heu, pro, are used with the Voca-
tive, Nominative, or Accusative ; en, ecce, with the Nomina-
tive or Accusative ; ei, vae, with the Dative only :
Oformosepuer, nimium ne crede colori. VERO.
O beautiful boy, trust not too much to complexion.
O fortunatam Bomam 1 Cic.
O fortunate Rome t
En ego vester Ascanius ! VEBO.
Lo liere am I your Ascanius I
172 SYNTAX
Ei misero mihi !
Alas I wretched, me.
Vaevictis! LIT.
Woe to the vanquished I
QUESTION AND ANSWER.
405 («) Single Questions are asked by :
nonne, expecting the answer yes.
num, „ „ ,, no.
-ne, expecting either answer.
an, expressing surprise and expecting answer no.
Canis nonne similis lupo est ? Cic.
7s not a dog like a wolf ?
Num negare audes? Cic. Potesne dicere? Cic.
Do you venture to deny ? Can you say ?
An tu me tristem esse putas ? PLAUT.
Do you think I am sad ?
Note.— Questions are also asked by Interrogative Pronouns (95, 100, 102,
327) and Adverbs (167, 168).
106 (&) Alternative Questions are asked by :
utrum . . . .an (or).
num an (or).
-ne an (or).
an, anne (or).
Haec utrum abundantis an egentis signasunt? Cic.
Are these the tokens of one who abounds or lacks ?
Num duas habetis patrias an est ilia patria communis ? Cic.
Have you two countries, or is that your common country ?
Romamne venio, an hie maneo, an Arpinum fugio ? Cic.
Do I come to Borne, or stay here, or flee to Arpinum ?
Note. — A single question is sometimes asked without any particle :
Infelix est Fabricius quod rus suum fodit ? SEN.
Is Fabricius unhappy because he digs his land?
QUESTION AND ANSWER 173
407 For Deliberative Questions the Present or Imperfect
Conjunctive is used :
Quid faciam? roger anne r o g e m ? Ov.
What shall I do? Shall I be asked or ask ?
Tibi ego irascerer, mi f rater? tibi ego possem irasci? Cic.
Should I be angry with you, my brother ? Could I be angry with
you?
408 Answer Affirmative is expressed :
(a) By repeating the emphatic word of the question,
sometimes with vero, sane, inquam.
Estne? . . . est. LIT. ] Dasne? . . . Do sane. Cic.
Is it? . . . it is. I Do you grant ? . I grant indeed.
(6) By ita, ita est, etiam, sane, sane quidem . . . :
Visne potiora tantum interrogem ? . . . Sane. Cic.
Would you have me ask only the principal matters ? . . . Certainly.
409 Answer Negative is expressed :
(a) By repeating the emphatic Verb with non.
Estne f rater intus? .. Non est. TER.
Is my brother within ? . . No.
(fy By non, non ita, minime, minime vero :
Venitne? . . . .Non. PLATJT.
Did he come ? . . . No.
Non pudet vanitatis ? . . . . .Minime.
Are you not ashamed of your folly ? . . . Not at all.
Note. — Immo, nay rather, yes even, is used in answers to correct or
modify, either by contradicting, or by strengthening :
Ubi fuit Sulla, num Eomae ? . . . Immo longe afuit. Cic.
Wliere was Sulla ? at Borne ? . . . Nay, lie was far away from fa
Tenaxneest? Immo pertinax. PLACT.
Is lie tenacious ? . . . . Yes even pertinacious.
174 SYNTAX
41O THE COMPOUND SENTENCE.
A Compound Sentence consists of a Principal Sentence with
one or more Subordinate Clauses.
Subordinate Clauses depend in their construction on the
Principal Sentence. They are divided into :
I. Substantival. II. Adverbial. III. Adjectival.
I. A Substantival Clause stands, like a Substantive, as Sub-
ject or Object of a Verb, or in Apposition.
II. An Adverbial Clause qualifies the Principal Sentence like
an Adverb, answering the questions how ? why ? when ? Adverb-
ial Clauses are introduced by Subordinative Conjunctions, and
are (1) Consecutive (so that] ; (2) Final (in order that) ; (3) Causal
(because, since) ; (4) Temporal (when, while, until) ; (5) Condi-
tional (if, unless) ; (6) Concessive (although, even if) ; (7) Com-
parative (as if, as though).
III. An Adjectival Clause qualifies the Principal Sentence
like an Adjective. It is introduced by the Kelative qui or by a
Kelative Particle, as ubi (where), unde (ivhence), quo (whitherl
'75
411 Sequence of Tenses.
The general rule for the Sequence of Tenses is that a Primary Tense in
the Principal Sentence is followed by a Primary Tense in the Clause, a
Historic Tense by a Historic Tense.
PRIMARY.
Simple Pres. rogo J ask \
Act.
quid agas
) what you are
Pres. Perf.
rogavi I liave
Pass.
quid a te agatur
j doing.
asked I
Act.
quid egeris
} what you have
Simple Put.
rogabo
Pass.
quid a te actum sit
) done.
Fut. Perf.
rogavero J
Act.
quid acturus sis
what you are
going to do.
Imperf.
Perf.
rogabam
rogavi I
asked
\ Act.
1 Pass.
I Act.
Pluperf.
rogaveram
Pass.
1 Act.
HISTORIC.
quid ageres 1 what you were
quid a te ageretur ) doing.
quid egisses } what you had
quid a te actum esset j done.
quid acturus esses what you were
going to do.
Note. — The Historic Present and Historic Infinitive are generally used
with Historic Sequence. The Primary Perfect Indicative has Primary
Sequence in most writers, but Cicero often gives it Historic Sequence. The
Perfect Conjunctive in its Pure use is always Primary ; in its Dependent
use, it is generally Primary, sometimes Historic.
412 Tenses of the Infinitive in Oratio Obliqua.
If the time of the Clause is the same as that of the Principal Verb, the
Present Infinitive is used.
If the time is before that of the Principal Verb, the Perfect Infinitive.
If the time follows that of the Principal Verb, the Future Infinitive.
Scio
I know
Sciebam
eum amare
that lie is loving
copias mitti
tliat forces are being sent
eum amare
that }ie was
amavisse
lias loved
missas esse
have been sent
amavisse
liad loved
amaturum esse
will love
missum iri
will be sent
amaturum esse
would love
I knew
copias mitti missas esse missum iri
that forces were being sent had been sent would be sent
e. — For the Supine in -um with iri, may be substituted fore or
futurum ut with the Conjunctive : fore (futurum esse), ut copiae mittantur
ut copiae mitterentur.
J76
SYNTAX
I. SUBSTANTIVAL CLAUSES.
413 Substantival Clauses are Indirect Speech (Oratio Obliqua).
Their forms correspond to the three direct forms of the Simple
Sentence.
1. Indirect Statement (Enuntiatio
Obliqua).
Scis me valere.
You know that I am well.
Sentimus calere ignem.
We feel that fire is hot.
2. Indirect Command or Bequest
(Petitio Obliqua).
Cura ut valeas.
Take care that you keep well.
Oro maneas in sententia.
I beg that you keep firm in
your opinion.
3. Indirect Question (Interrogatio
Obliqua).
Quaero an valeas.
I ask whether you are well.
Incertum est quis sit.
It is doubtful who he is.
1. Direct Statement.
Valeo.
I am well .
Calet ignis.
Fire is hot.
2. Direct Positive Command or
Bequest.
Vale.
Farewell.
Mane in sententia.
Keep firm in your opinion.
3. Direct Question.
Valesne ?
Are you well ?
Quis est ?
Who is he ?
1. Indirect Statement.
414 The Accusative with. Infinitive is the most usual form of
Indirect Statement. It may stand :
(a) As the Subject of an Impersonal Verb, or of est with
an Abstract Substantive or Neuter Adjective :
Constat leges ad salutem civium i n v e n t a s esse. Cic.
It is agreed that laws were devised for the safety of citizens.
Nuntiatum est Scipionem adesse. CAES.
It was announced that Scipio was at hand.
Bern te valde bene gessisse rumor erat. Cic.
Tliere was a report tJiat you had conducted the affair very well'
Verum est amicitiam nisi inter bonos esse non posse. Cic.
It is true that friendship cannot exist except between the good.
SUBSTANTIVAL CLAUSES 17?
(b] As Object, after Verbs of saying, thinking, feeling,
perceiving, knowing, believing, denying :
Democritus dicit innumerabiles esse mundos. Cic.
Democritus says tJiat there are countless worlds.
Pompeios desedisse terrae motu audivimus. SEN.
We have lieard that Pompeii has perished in an earthquake.
(c) In Apposition :
Illud temere dictum, sapientes omnes esse bonos. Cic.
It was rashly said that all wise men are good.
Note. — Verbs of lioping, promising, swearing, threatening generally take
the Accusative with Future Infinitive :
Sperabam id me assecuturum. Cic.
I hoped to attain this.
Pollicebatur pecuniam se esse redditurum. Cic.
He promised that he would return the money.
415 A Clause formed by Ut with the Conjunctive is used as
Subject with Impersonal Verbs or phrases which express fact
or occurrence ; it is also used in Apposition, but it seldom stands
as Object:
Expedit u t civitates sua jura h a b e a n t. Liv.
That states should have tlieir own laws is expedient.
Mos erat ut in pace Jani templum clauderetur. Liv.
It was the custom that in time of peace tlie temple of Janus was
shut.
Extremum illud est ut te obsecrem. Cic.
The last thing is for me to beseech you.
Note. — The Accusative with Infinitive, or the Ut Clause, used Inter-
rogatively, sometimes expresses indignation :
Mene incepto desistere victam? VERO.
What ! J to be vanquished and abandon my design t
Te ut ulla res frangat ? Cic.
Can anything break your pride ?
416 A Clause formed by Quod with the Indicative is used as
Subject, or in Apposition, where a fact is to be dwelt on :
Accedit hue q u o d postridie ille venit. Cic.
Add to this thai lie came the next day.
Hoc praestamus maxime feris, quod loquimur. Cic.
We excel beasts most in this respect, that we speak.
178 SYNTAX
Earely as Object, after Verbs such as addo, mitto, omitto,
praetereo :
Adde quod idem non horam tecum esse potes. Hoa.
Add moreover that you cannot keep your own company for an hour.
It is also used with Verbs of rejoicing and grieving :
Dolet mihi quod tu stomacharis. Cic.
It grieves me that you are angry.
Gaude, quod spectant oculi te mille loquentem. HOB.
Rejoice, that a thousand eyes behold you speaking.
Note. — With Verbs of rejoicing and grieving, the Accusative with Infini-
tive or the Quod Clause may be used : Salvum te ad venire gaudeo (PLAUT.),
I rejoice that you arrive in health ; might be, ' Gaudeo quod salvus advenis.'
2. Indirect Command, Request or Prohibition.
417 A Clause depending on a Verb of commanding, wishing,
exhorting, entreating, is in the Conjunctive : if positive, with lit ,'
if negative, with ne. The Clause may stand
(a) as Subject ; (b) as Object ; (c) in Apposition :
(a) Postulatur ab amico ut sit sincerus. Cic.
It is required of a friend tliat he be sincere.
Nuntiatum est Antonio ne Brutum obsideret. Cic.
An order was sent to Antony that he should not besiege Brutut,
(b) Etiam atque etiam te rogo atque oro ut eum juves. Cic.
I urgently beg and pray you to help him.
Mihi ne abscedam imperat. TEB.
He commands me not to go away.
(c) Hoc te rogo, ne dimittas animum. Crc.
This I beg you, not to lose heart.
Note 1. — With oro, rogo, moneo, suadeo, sino, impero, euro, volo, nolo,
malo, and some other verbs, ut is often omitted. With licet oportet it is
not used. Idque sinas oro ; and I pray that you grant that.
Haec omnia praetermittas licet. Cic.
It is allowable to omit all these things.
Note 2. — Verbs of willing and desiring, volo, nolo, cupio, also jubeo and
many others, frequently take the Accusative with Infinitive :
Eas res jactari nolebat. CAES.
He was unwilling to have those things discussed.
Eos suum adventum exspectare jussit. CAES.
He desired them to await his arrival-
SUBSTANTIVAL CLAUSES
Note 3. — Verbs of taking care, effecting , causing, are used \vitn ut ; verb*
of guarding against, with ne:
Cura et provide ut nequid ei desit. Cic.
Take care and provide that nothing be wanting to Mm.
Sol efficit ut omnia floreant. Cic.
Tlie sun causes all things to bloom.
Cave, beware lest, with ne or without a Conjunction ; cave, take care
tliat, is used with ut :
Cave ne portus occupet alter. HOB.
Beware lest another forestall you in occupying tlie harbour.
Note 4.— Verbs of fearing take the Conjunctive : with ne to express fear
that something will happen ; with ut or ne non to express fear that some-
thing will not happen :
Metuo ne faciat.
I fear he may do it.
Metuo ut faciat (or ne non faciat).
I fear lie may not do it.
418 ftuominus, that not (literally by which the less), with the
Conjunctive, forms a Clause depending on a Verb or phrase
which expresses hindrance or prevention :
Senectus non impedit quominus litterarum studia teneamus.
Cic.
Age does not prevent our continuing literary pursuits.
Neque repugnabo quominus omnia legant. Cic.
Nor will I oppose tneir reading all things.
Per Af ranium stetit quominus proelio dimicaretur. CAES.
It was owing to Afranius that no battle was fought.
419 ftuin, that not, with the Conjunctive, follows many of the
same Verbs, and phrases of similar meaning :
Nihil abest quin sim miserrimus. Cic.
Nothing is wanting to my being most miserable.
Aegre sunt retenti quin oppidum irrumperent. CAES.
They were hardly withheld from bursting into the city.
Note 1.— The sentence on which quominus depends is generally negative
or interrogative, but it may be positive ; the sentence on which quin depends
is always negative, or virtually negative.
Note 2. — Many of these Verbs take ne :
Atticus, ne qua sibi statua poneretur, restitit. NEP.
Atticus opposed having any statue raised to him.
.Prohibeo takes quominus or ne, veto more often ne, and both take
Accusative with Infinitive.
N2
i8o SYNTAX
3. Indirect Question.
420 Indirect Question is formed by a dependent Interrogative
Pronoun or Particle with a Verb in the Conjunctive.
The Clause of the Indirect Question may be (a) Subject or (b)
Object or (c) in Apposition, and the Question may be single or
alternative :
(a) Videndum est, quando, et cui, et quemadmodum, et quare
demus. Cic.
Care must be taken, when, to wlwin, how, and why we give.
Demus, necne demus, in nostra potestate est. Cic.
Whether we give or do not give is in our own power.
(b) Fac me certiorem quando adfuturus sis. Cic.
Let me know when you will be fare.
Haud scio an quae dixit sint vera omnia. TEB.
I am inclined to think that all lie has said is the truth.
(e) Ipse quis sit, utrum sit, an non sit, id quoque nescit.
CATULL.
He knows not even this, who he himself is, whether lie, is or is not.
II. ADVERBIAL CLAUSES.
1. Consecutive Clauses.
421 Consecutive Clauses define the consequence of what is
stated in the Principal Sentence. They are introduced by ut,
with a Verb in the Conjunctive ; if negative, by ut non, ut nihil,
ut nullus, &c.
Ut, in Consecutive Clauses, usually follows a Demonstrative,
adeo, eo, hue, ita, tarn, sic, tantus, tot :
Non sum ita hebes ut istud dicam. Cic.
I am not so stupid as to say that.
Quis tarn demens est ut sua voluntate maereat? Cic.
Who is so mad as to mourn of his own free will ?
Nemo adeo ferus est ut non mitescere possit. HOB.
No one is so savage that he cannot soften.
ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 18%
Note.— Sometimes the Demonstrative is omitted :
Arboribus consita Italia est, u t tota pomarium videatur. VABKO.
Italy is planted with trees, so as to seem one orcJiard.
Clare, etut audiat hospes. PERS.
Aloud, and so tliat a bystander may hear.
Ut is used in a restrictive sense after ita :
Litterarum ita studiosus erat ut poetas omnino neglegeret. Cic.
He was fond of literature, with tlie reservation that he cared
nothing for poetry.
TJt Consecutive sometimes follows quam with a Comparative :
Isocrates majore ingenio est quam ut cum Lysia compare-
tur. Cic.
Isocrates is of too great genius to be compared with Lysias.
422 ftuin, but that, with the Conjunctive, follows phrases and
questions such as non, or haud dubium est ; quis dubitat ?
Non dubium erat quin totius Galliae pluriinum Helvetii pos-
5 cut. CAES.
There was no doubt ttiat in the whole of Gaul tlie Helvetii were
the most powerful.
Quis dubitet quin in virtute divitiae positae sint? Cic.
Who would doubt that riclies consist in virtue ?
Note 1. — A Consecutive ut clause sometimes depends on the phrase
tantum abest followed by a Substantival ut clause, the meaning being so
far from .... that . . .
Tantum abest ut nostra miremur, ut nobis non satisfaciat
ipse Demosthenes. Cic.
So far am I from admiring my own productions, that Demosthenes
himself does not satisfy me.
Note 2. — In Consecutive Clauses the Sequence of Tenses sometimes
varies from the general rule. If it is intended to mark the consequence a?
something exceptional, the Primary Perfect in the Clause may follow the
Imperfect or Historic Perfect in the Principal Sentence.
Non adeo virtutum sterile erat saeculum ut non et bona ex-
empla prodiderit. TAC.
The age was not so bare of virtues tliat U has not furnished some
good examples.
(For Consecutive Clauses with Qui, see 452.)
182 SYNTAX
2. Final Clauses.
423 Final Clauses express the aim or purpose of the action of the
Principal Sentence. They are formed by at, or, if negative, by
ne, ut ne, with the Conjunctive :
Venio ut videam. Abii ne viderem.
I come that I may see. I went away that I might not see.
Ut jugulent homines surgunt de nocte latrones. Juv.
Robbers rise by night that they may kill men.
Scipio rus abiit ne ad causam dicendam adesset. Cic.
Scipio went into the country that he might not be present to defend
his cause.
Ut, with a Final Clause, often corresponds to the Demon-
stratives eo, ideo, idcirco, propterea, ob earn rem :
Legum idcirco servi sumus ut liberi esse possimus. Cic.
We are the bondmen of the law in order that we may be free.
Note 1. — A Final Clause with ut or ne is used parenthetically in such
phrases as : ut ita dicam, so to say ; ne longus sim, not to be tedious.
Note 2.— Nedum, much less (not to say), may take a Verb in the Con-
junctive :
Mortalia facta peribunt,
Nedum sermonum s t e t honos et gratia vivax. HOB.
Mortal deeds will perish, much less can the honour and popularity
of words be lasting.
Note 3. — The purpose of action is expressed in many ways, all equiva-
lent to ut with a Final Clause. He sent ambassadors to seek peace may be
rendered :
Legates misit ut pacem peterent.
„ „ qui pacem peterent.
„ „ ad petendam pacem.
„ „ petendi pacem causa.
„ ,, petendae pacis causa.
„ „ petitum pacem.
Note!.— The Sequence of Tenses in Final Clauses always follows the
general rule.
(For Final Clauses with Qui, see 453.)
ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 183
3. Causal Glauses.
424 Causal Clauses assign a reason for the statement made in
the Principal Sentence.
425 "When an actual reason for a fact is given, quod, quia, quo-
niam, quando, quandoquidem, quatenus, siquidem, are used
with the Indicative : *
Adsunt propterea quod officium sequuntur; tacent quia peri-
culum m e t u u n t. Cic.
They are present because they follmo duty ; tJiey are silent because
they fear danger.
Vos, Quirites, quoniam jam nox est, in vestra tecta discedite.
Liv.
Since it is already night, depart, ye Quirites, to your tents.
Geramus, dis bene juvantibus, quando itavidetur, bellum. Liv.
Let us wage war, the gods helping us, since so it seems good.
Note. — Quod, quia, quoniam correspond to eo, ideo, idcirco, propterea ;
ideo quia uxor ruri est (TEK.) ; for tJie reason that my wife is in the
country.
426 Cum, since, with a Causal Clause takes the Conjunctive ;
Quae cum ita sint, ab Jove pacem ac veniam peto. Cic.
Since tliese things are so, I ask of Jupiter peace and pardon.
Note 1. — After gratulor, laudo, gaudeo, doleo, cum, for the reason that,
takes the Indicative, if the Verb is in the first person :
Gratulor tibi cum tantum vales apud Dolabellam. Cic.
I congratulate you tJiat you liave so much weight with Dolabella.
Note 2. — Non quod, non quia take the Indicative when they refer to the
actual cause of a fact ; if they refer to a cause thought of, not actual, they take
the Conjunctive, and a following clause, with sed, gives the true reason :
Non quia salvos vellet, sed quia perire causa indicta nolebat.
Liv.
Not because he wished them to be saved, but because he did not
wish them to die witJiout trial.
(For Causal Clauses with Qui, r.ee 454.)
" Clauses in Oratio Obliqua must be all following rules for the use of the Indi-
understood to te excepted from this and cative.
184 SYNTAX
4. Temporal Clauses.
427 Temporal Clauses define the time when anything has
happened, is happening, or will happen.
The Mood of a Temporal Clause is Indicative if its Con-
nexion with the Principal Sentence is one of time only, and if
the time of each is independent of the other ; but, if the time
of the Clause is thought of as depending on the time of the
Principal Sentence, the Mood of the Clause is Conjunctive.
428 ^^ u*' P08t(luam> simulac, quando, quotiens, cum primum
are generally used with the Indicative :
Olea ubi matura erit quam primum cogi oportet. CATO.
When the, olive is (sliall be) ripe, it must be gathered in as soon
as possible.
Ut Hostus cecidit, confestim Komana inclinatur acies. Liv.
When Hostus fell, immediately the Roman line gave way.
Eo postquam Caesar pervenit, obsides, anna poposcit. CAES.
After Caesar had arrived there, he demanded hostages and arms.
429 Dum, donee, quoad, while, as long as, take the Indicative :
Homines dum decent discunt. SEN.
Men learn while they teach.
Dum haec Veiis agebantur, interim Capitolium in ingenti
periculo fuit. Liv.
While these things were being done at Veil, the Capitol was mean-
while in dire peril.
Cato, quoad vixit, virtutum laude crevit. NEP.
Cato increased in the renown of virtue as long as he lived.
430 Dum is used with the Historic Present, the Verb of the
Principal Sentence being in a Historic tense :
Dum haec in colloquio geruntur, Caesari nuntiatum est equites
accedere. CAES.
While this parley was being carried on, it was announced to
Caesar that the cavalry were approaching.
ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 185
431 Dum, donee, quoad, until, and antequam, priusquam, before
that, take the Indicative when the only idea conveyed is that
of time :
Milo in senatu fuit eo die, quoad senatus dimissus est. Cic.
On tliat day Milo was in tlie Senate until tlic Senate was dismissed.
Priusquam de ceteris rebus respondeo, de amicitia pauca
dicam. Cic.
Before I ansiver about other matters, I will say a few things abmit
friendship.
432 But when the idea of expecting or waiting for something
comes in, they take the Conjunctive :
Exspectate dum consul aut dictator fiat Kaeso. Lrv.
Wait till Kaeso become consul or dictator.
433 Cum, if it expresses only the time when something happens,
is used with the Indicative :
De te cum quiescunt probant, cum t a c e n t clamant. Cic.
Concerning you, when they are quiet they approve, when they are
silent they cry aloud.
Cum Caesar in Galliam venit, alterius factionis principes erant
Haedui, alterius Sequani. CAES.
WJien Caesar came into Gaul, tlic Haedui were chiefs of one faction,
the Segimni of anotlier.
The addition of the Demonstratives turn, tune, marks that
the times of the Principal Sentence and Clause correspond
more exactly :
Lituo Romulus regiones direxit turn cum urbem condidit. Cic.
Eomulus marked out the districts with a staff at the time when he
founded the city.
Turn cum in Asia res am is erant, scimus Eomae fidem conci-
disse. Cic.
At the time when they had lost their power in Asia, we know tliat
credit sank at Eome.
i86 SYNTAX
434 If the action of the Clause with cum takes place while that
of the Principal Sentence is continuing, or if it quickly follows
it, the Clause sometimes contains the main statement, while
the Principal Sentence defines the time (inverse cum) :
Jam ver appetebat cum Hannibal ex hibernis movit. Liv.
Spring was already approaching when Hannibal moved out of his
winter quarters.
Commodum discesserat Hilarus cum venit tabellarius. Cic.
Hilarus had just departed, when the letter-carrier came.
Note.— Gam with the Indicative sometimes expresses what has long been
and still continues :
Multi anni sunt cum Fabius in aere meo est. Cic.
For many years past Fabius IMS been in my debt.
435 Cum is used in narrative with the Imperfect or Pluperfect
Conjunctive, the Verb of the Principal Sentence being in the
Perfect or the Historic Present (historic cum) :
Note. — It is used with the Imperfect for contemporary time, with the
Pluperfect for prior time.
Cum triginta tyranni oppressas tenerent Athenas, Thrasybulus
his bellum indixit. NEP.
Wlien the thirty tyrants were oppressing Athens, Thrasybulus
declared war against them.
Cum Pausanias de templo elatus esset, confestim animam
efflavit. NEP.
When Pausanias Jiad been carried down from the temple, lie
immediately expired.
Cum hostes adessent, in urbem pro se quisque ex agris d emi-
grant. Liv.
On the approach of the enemy, they move, each as he best can,
from the country into the city.
ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 187
436 Note. — In and after the Augustan age the Conjunctive is used in Tem-
poral Clauses for repeated action like the Greek Optative :
Id fetialis ubi dixisset, hastam in fines hostium mittebat. Liv.
As soon as a fetial had thus spoken, lie used to fling a spear within
the enemy's boundaries.
Saepe cum aliquem videret minus bene vestitum, suum ami-
culuin dedit. NEP.
Often when he saw someone ill dressed, he gave him his own cloak.
But cum is used down to the time of Cicero and Caesar (inclusive) with
the Indicative for repeated action ; in reference to present time with the
Perfect, in reference to past time with the Pluperfect :
Verres cum rosam vide rat, turn ver esse arbitrabatur. Cic.
WJienever Verres had seen a rose, he considered that it was spring.
5. Conditional Clauses.
437 Conditional Statements consist of a Clause introduced by si,
nisi, containing the preliminary condition, which is called the
Protasis, and a Principal Sentence, containing that which follows
from the condition, which is called the Apodosis.
They have two chief forms :
(1) where the Indicative is used in both Protasis and
Apodosis ;
(2) where the Conjunctive is used in both.
A Primary tense in the Protasis is usually followed by a
Primary in the Apodosis, and a Historic by a Historic.
438 (1) The Indicative is used in the si-Clause and in the
Principal Sentence when the truth of the one statement depends
on the truth of the other ; if one is a fact, the other is also a
fact :
Si vales, bene est. Cic.
If you are in good health, all is well.
Parvi sunt foris arma, nisi est consilium domi. Cic.
Arms are of little avail abroad, unless there is counsel at home.
Si feceris id quod ostendis, magnam habebo gratiam. Cio.
If you shall Jiave done what you offer, I shall be very grateful.
«88 SYNTAX
Siquod erat grande vas, laeti afferebant. Cic.
If there was any large vessel, they gladly produced it.
Si lieu it, patris pecuniam recte abstulit filius. Cic.
If it was lawful, the son rightly took his father's money.
Note 1. — A si-Clause with the Indicative is often used with the Imperative:
Si me am as, paullum hie ades. HOR.
If you love me, stand by me liere a short time.
Causam investigate, si poteris. Cic.
Search out the cause if you can.
Note 2. — A si-Clause with the Indicative also follows a Conjunctive
(Optative use) :
Moriar, si vera non loquor. Cic.
May I die if I am not speaking the truth.
439 (2) The Conjunctive is used both in the si-Clause and in the
Principal Sentence when the condition is imaginary :
(a) The Present Conjunctive is used when the state-
ments are thought of as possible, more or less
probable :
Sexcenta mem or em, si sit otium. PLAUT.
I could mention endless things, liad I leisure.
Si a corona relictus sim, non queam dicere. Cic.
If I were forsaken by my circle of hearers I should not be able to
speak.
(b) The Historic Conjunctive is used when the statements
are purely imaginary ; when there is no possibility
of their becoming actual :
Si foret in terris, rider et Democritus. HOB.
Democriius would be laughing, if he were upon earth.
Si id scissem, numquam hue tulissem pedem. TEB.
If I had known that, I should never Jiave come hither.
Magis id diceres, si adfuisses. Cic.
You would have said so all the more, had you been present.
ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 189
440 Note. — The Indicative may be used in the Principal Sentence with a
si-Clause in the Conjunctive,
(a) When the truth of the statement in the Principal Sentence is less
closely dependent on the si-Clause :
Te neque debent adjuvare si possint, neque possunt si
velint. Cic.
Tliey neither ought to help you if tJiey could, nor can if tliey
would.
(b) When the Principal Sentence expresses action begun, but hindered
by the condition in the si-Clause :
Numeros memini si verba tenerem. VERG.
I remember the measure if I could recall the words.
(c) With the past tenses of Verbs of duty and possibility :
Poterat utrumque praeclare fieri, si esset fides in hominibus
consularibus. Cic.
Both might have been done admirably if there had been lumour in
men of consular rank.
(d) With the past tenses of esse, especially in Periphrastic conjugation :
Si unum diem morati essetis, moriendum omnibus fuit.
Liv.
If you liad delayed a single day, you must all have died.
Et factura fuit, pactus nisi Juppiter esset . . . Ov.
And she would have done it, if Jupiter had not agreed . . .
441 Note 1. — Si is sometimes omitted :
Ait quis, aio ; negat, nego. TER.
If anyone affirms, I affirm ; if anyone denies, I deny.
Note 2. — Nisi forte, nisi vero are ironical. Si non throws the emphasis
of the negative on a single word :
Si non feceris, ignoscam.
If you have not done it, I will pardon.
Note 3.— Sive . . . sive, sen . . . sen, whether . . . or, or if, are used for
alternative conditions :
Sive retractabis, sive properabis.
Whether you delay or hasten (it).
442 Bum, dummodo, modo, if only, provided that, take the Con-
junctive :
Oderint dum metuant. SUET.
Let tliem hate provided they fear.
Modo ne laudarent iracundiam. Cic.
If only they did not praise wrath.
190 SYNTAX
443 Note 1. — The following table shows how to convert Conditional Sentences
into Oratio Obliqua when the Apodosis becomes an Infinitive Clause, and
the Protasis is subordinate to it.
After a Primary Tense.
1. Si peccas (peccasti), doles. ,1. si pecces (peccaveris), dolere.
2. Si peccabis, dolebis. ] (2. | pecces, j , ,.,
esse.
fc
3. Si peccaveris, dolueris. [• 3. si \ peccaveris,
4. Si pecces, doleas. . •
• •« * » , Aio te.
5. Si peccares, doleres.
6. Si peccavisses, \ A , -
7. Si peccares, | d°luisses.
8. Si peccavisses, doleres.
4. I peccaturus sis,
5. si peccares, doliturum esse.
6. . f peccavisses, | doliturum
7. ( peccares, j fuisse.
8. si peccavisses, doliturum fore.
After a Historic Tense.
(1. si peccares (peccavisses), dolere.
2. ( peccares,
3. si I peccavisses, I doliturum esse.
4. [ peccaturus esses, J
The other four forms remain unchanged.
Note 2. Si peccavisses, doluisses is equivalent to si peccavisses, doli-
turus fuisti ; and this may either be converted, as above, into the Infinitive
Clause, or into the Conjunctive :
Aio te, si peccavisses, doliturum fuisse.
Haec talia sunt ut, si peccavisses, doliturus fueris.
6. Concessive Clauses.
444 Concessive Clauses are introduced by etsi, etiamsi, tametsi,
quamquam, quamvis, licet.
Note.— A. Concessive Clause is so called because it concedes, or allows,
an objection to the statement in the Principal Sentence. The rule for mood
is the same as in Conditional Clauses.
445 Etsi, etiamsi, tametsi are used (a) with the Indicative,
(6) with the Conjunctive :
(a) Etiamsi tacent, satis dicunt. Cic.
Even if they are silent, they say enough.
(b) Etiamsi non is esset Caesar qui est, tarn en ornandus
videretur. Cic.
Even if Caesar were not wJiat he is, yet lie would be considered
worthy of honour.
446 Quamquam is used with the Indicative :
Quamquam f estinas, non est mora longa. HOR.
Although you are in haste, tlie delay is not long.
447 Quamvis, licet are used with the Conjunctive :
Quamvis non fueris suasor, approbator fuisti. Cic.
Although you did not make the suggestion, you have given your
approval.
ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 191
Licet vitium sit ambitio, frequenter tarn en causa virtutum
e s t. QUINT.
Granted that ambition be a fault, yet often it is a cause of virtues.
448 Note 1.— Quamquam is used by later writers with the Conjunctive, and
quamvis is often found in poets with the Indicative.
Note 2. — Ut, ne, cum are occasionally used in a Concessive sense, and
take the Conjunctive :
Ut desint vires, tamen est laudanda voluntas. Ov.
Though strength be wanting, yet must the will be praised.
Ne sit summum malum dolor, malum certe est. Cic.
Granted that pain be not the greatest evil, it surely is an evil.
His, cum facere non possent, loqui tamen et scribere honeste
et magnifice licebat. Cic.
These, tJiough they could not so act, were yet at liberty to speak
and write virtuously and loftily.
Note 3. — Concessive Clauses are sometimes formed without Conjunctions.
Naturam expellas furca, tamen usque recurret. HOE.
Though you drive out Nature with a pitchfork, yet she will
always come back.
449 7. Comparative Clauses.
In Comparative Clauses the action or fact of the Principal
Sentence is compared with a supposed condition ; they are formed
by quasi (quamsi), tamquam, tamquam si, ut si, velut si, ac si
with the Conjunctive :
Assimulabo quasi nunc ex earn. TER,
I will pretend to be just going out.
Tamquam de regno dimicaretur ita concurrerunt. Lrv.
They joined battle as if it were a struggle for the kingdom.
Tamquam si claudus sim, cum fusti est ambulandum. PLAUT.
J must walk with a stick as if I were lame.
Ejus negotium sic velim cures, ut si essetresmea. Cic.
I would wish you to care fnr his business just as if it were my
affair.
Note. — The Demonstratives are ita, sic, perinde, proinde, aeque,
Bimiliter.
192 SYNTAX
III. ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES.
450 The Relative qui in its simple use takes the Indicative :
Est in Britannia flumen, q u o d appellatur Tamesis. OAES.
There is in Britain a river which is called the Thames.
Quis fuit horrendos primus qui protulit enses? Ov.
Who was (the man) who first invented terrible swords ?
Note. — This rule applies to Correlatives, qualis, quantus, quot, and to
Universals, quisquis, quicumque, &c.
Non sum qualis eram. HOB. I Quidquid erit, tibi erit. Cic.
I am not what I was. Whatever there is will be for you.
451 But the Relative often introduces a Clause Consecutive, Final
or Causal, with the Conjunctive, corresponding to the Adverbial
Clauses with similar meaning.
452 ftui with the Conjunctive forms a Consecutive Clause with
the meaning of such a kind that :
(a) After a Demonstrative :
Non sum is qui his rebus delecter. Cic.
I am not one to delight in these things.
Ea est Romana gens quae victa quiescere nesciat. Liv.
The Roman race is such that it knows not how to rest quiet under
defeat.
Nihil tanti fuit quo venderemus fidem nostram et libertatem.
Cic.
Nothing was of such value that we should sell for it our faith and
freedom.
(b) After Indefinite and Interrogative Pronouns, or Negatives,
nemo, nihil, nullus :
Est aliquid quod non op or teat, etiamsi licet. Cic.
There is something which is not fitting, even if it is lawful.
Quis est cui non possit malum evenire? Cic.
Who is there to whom evil may not happen ?
Nihil est quod tarn dec eat quam constantia. Cic.
Nothing is so becoming as consistency.
ADJECTIVAL CLAUSES. 193
Note. — Qnin for qui non is similarly used :
Nemo est quin audierit quemadmodum captae sint Syracusae.
Cic.
There is no one who has not heard Juno Syracuse was taken.
(c) After Impersonal est, there is, sunt, there are :
Sunt qui duos tan turn in sacro monte creates tribunes esse
dicant. Liv.
There are who say that only two tribunes were elected on the sacred
mount.
but est qui, sunt qui take the Indicative if they refer to
Definite Antecedents :
Sunt item quae appellantur alces. CAES.
There are also (some animals) which are called elks.
(d} After Comparatives with quam :
Majora deliquerant quam quibus ignosci posset. LIT.
They had committed greater offences than could be pardoned.
(e) After dignus, indignus :
Dignus est qui imperet. Cic.
He is worthy to govern.
Q,ui with the Conjunctive forms a Final Clause, in order that :
Clusini legatos Bomam, qui auxilium a senatu peterent, misere.
Liv.
T)ie Clusini sent ambassadors to Rome to seek aid from the senate.
Quo with a Comparative introduces a Final Clause, and
takes the Conjunctive :
Solon f urere se simulavit, quo tutior ejus vita e s s e t. Cic.
Solon pretended to be mad in order that his life might be the safer.
Qui introduces a Causal Clause, and usually takes the Con-
junctive :
Miseret tui me qui hunc facias inimicum tibi. TEB.
I pity you for making this man your enemy.
Note 1.— Qui causal is sometimes strengthened by quippe, ut, utpote.
Note 2. — Non quo is sometimes used for non quod : non quo quemquam
plus am em, eo feci (TEB.), I have not done it because I love anyone more.
Note 3. — Qui with the Indicative forms a Causal Clause as a paren-
thesis :
Qua es p r u d e n t i a, nihil te f ugiet. Cic.
Such is your prudence, nothing will escape you.
0
194 SYNTAX
455 The rules for the use of qui with Indicative or Conjunctive
apply also to the Eelative particles quo (whither), qua (where, in
what way], ubi (where), uncle (whence).
Locus, quo exercitui aditus non erat. CAES.
A place whither there was no approach for the army.
Colles, unde erat despectus in mare. CAES.
The hills, from which there was a view over tlie sea.
Qua ducitis, adsum. VEBO.
Where you lead, I am present.
Ne illi sit cera, ubi f acere p o s s i t litteras. PLAUT.
Let him have no wax on which to write.
A clause introduced by a Eelative particle may be adverbial,
unless the clause distinctly qualifies a noun in the Principal Sen-
tence :
Antonius quo se verteret non habebat. Cic.
Antony had no place whither he could turn.
456 Note. — Qui with the Conjunctive sometimes limits a statement : quod
sciam, so far as I know ; omnium, quos quidem cognoverim, of all those at
least whom I have known.
457 .Note. — The Kelative is often used at the beginning of a Principal
Sentence to show the connexion with something which has gone before ;
quo facto, this being done ; qua de causa, for which reason ; quod dicis, 05
to that which you say.
OKATIO OBLIQUA.
458 Oratio Obliqua is used in reports, whether short or long, of
speeches, letters, &c. Indirect Statement, Command, and
Question are often contained in the report of one speech by
historians, especially by Caesar, Livy, and Tacitus.
459 In Indirect Statement the Principal Verbs are changed from
the Indicative to the Infinitive in the same tense :
Direct.
Bomulus urbem condidit.
Romulus founded the city.
Indirect.
Narrant Eomulum urbem con-
didisse.
They say that Romulus founded
the city.
460 Note. — If the actual words of the speaker or writer are quoted, they are
often introduced with Inquit, he says, following the first word :
Eomulus haec precatus, 'hinc,' inquit, 'Komani, Juppiter
iterare pugnam jubet.' Lrv.
When Romulus had thus prayed, ' Hence,' he says, ' Romans,
Jupiter commands (you) to renew the battle.'
ORATIO OBLIQUA.
195
461 In Indirect Commands, the Conjunctive (usually in the
Imperfect, but sometimes in the Present Tense) takes the place
of the Imperative of Direct Commands :
Direct
Ite, inquit, create consules ex
plebe.
Go, he says, and elect consuls
from the plebs.
Indirect.
(Hortatus est :) irent crearent
consules ex plebe.
462 In Indirect Questions in the Second Person, the Verbs are in
the Conjunctive (usually in the Imperfect or Pluperfect Tense, but
sometimes in the Present or Perfect) :
Indirect.
Quid ageret? Cur non antea
pugnam commisisset?
Direct.
Quid agis? inquit. Cur non
antea pugnam commisisti?
Wliat are you about ? he says.
Why have you not joined battle
before ?
463 Indirect Questions in the First or Third Person are generally
expressed by the Accusative and Infinitive :*
Indirect.
Cur se pro hominibus ignavia
sanguinem profudisse? Num sem-
per hostes ad pugnam cessaturos?
Direct.
Cur ego pro hominibus ignavis
sanguinem profudi? Num semper
hostes ad pugnam cessabunt?
Why Jiave I sJied my blood for
cowards? Will the enemy always
be slow to fight ?
464 The Pronouns ego, me, nos, meus, noster of Oratio Recta
are converted in Oratio Obliqua into se, suus ; tu, te, vos, tuus
vester, are converted into ille, ilium, illi, illos, illius, illorum :
Ego te pro hoste habebo;
socii quoque nostri amicitiam
tuam exuent.
I sJiall regard you as an enemy ;
our allies also will throw off your
friendship.
• Such Questions are really Statements
put for rhetorical effect in an Interrogative
form. 'Why have I shed my blood for
cowards?' means, 'I have shed my blood
for cowards— why ? ' I have shed my blood
Se ilium pro hoste habi-
turum; socios quoque suos
illius amicitiam exuturos.
for cowards to no purpose. 'Will the
enemy always be slow to fight ? ' means,
'The enemy will not always be slow to
flglit.'
O 2
196 SYNTAX
465 The Keflexive Pronoun, se suns, in Compound Sentences is
often used to refer, not to the Subject of the Principal Sentence
(316), but to the Subject of the Clause in which it stands :
Nervios hortatur ne sui liberandi occasionem dimittant.
CAES.
He urges the Nervii that they should not lose the opportunity of
freeing themselves.
Bex supplicem monuit ut consuleret sibi.
The king warned the suppliant that he should take heed to
himself.
466 Sometimes ipse is used for the sake of clear distinction.
Caesar asked the soldiers : —
Quid tandem vererentur aut cur de sua virtute aut de ipsius
diligentia desperarent? CAES.
What cause had they to fear, why did they despair either of their
own bravery or of his carefulness ?
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES IN OBATIO OBLIQUA.
467 Substantival Clauses may have Clauses subordinate to them ;
if the Verb in such Clauses is Finite, it is generally in the
Conjunctive Mood, and the construction is called Suboblique.
This construction is seen in the following examples :
Caesar ad me scripsit gratissimum sibi esse quod quieverim.
Cic.
Caesar has written to me that it is very pleasing to him tliat I liave
remained quiet.
Ais, quoniam sit natura mortalis, inimortalem etiam esse
oportere. Cic.
You say that, since there is a mortal nature, there must also be an
immortal one.
Quotiens patriam videret, totiens se beneficium meum videre
dixit. Cic.
He said that, as often as he saw his country, so often did he see my
service.
Sapientissimum esse dicunt eum, cui, quod opus sit, ipsi veniat
in mentem ; proximo accedere ilium, q u i alterius bene
inventis obtemperet. Cic.
They say that the wisest man is he to wlwse mind whatever is
needful occurs ; that the next to him is he who turns to account
the useful discoveries of another.
ORAT10 OBLIQUA ,97
Note 1. — A Relative Clause in Oratio Obliqua, if added merely by way of
explanation, may be in the Indicative :
Xerxem certiorem feci id agi ut pons, quern in Hellesponto
f ecerat, dissolveretur. NEP.
I sent Xerxes word that a plot ivas being arranged that tlie bridge
(which lie had made over tlie Hellespont) might be broken down.
The words ' which lie had made over the Hellespont ' were not part of
the message to Xerxes, but are added by the writer for explanation.
Note 2. — Dum,while, is used with the Indicative, even in Oratio Obliqua :
Vident se, dum libertatem sectantur, in servitutem prolapses.
They see tliat, while striving for liberty, they have tJiemselves
fallen into slavery.
468 A Finite Verb subordinate to a Conjunctive is usually in
the Conjunctive :
Miraris si nemo praestet quern non merearis amorem? HOR.
Are you surprised if no one sJiows you the love which you do not
deserve ?
Utinam tune essem natus quando Eomani dona accipere
coepissent. SALL.
Would that I liad been born wlien tlie Romans began to receive gifts.
469 A Clause may be virtually oblique, with the Verb in the
Conjunctive (Virtual Oratio Obliqua), when it contains the
speaker's statement of another person's words or opinions, for
which he does not make himself responsible. If the speaker
made the statement his own, as being one of fact, the Verb
would be in the Indicative :
Laudat Africanum Panaetius quod fuerit abstinens. Cic.
Panaetius praises Africanus because (as lie says) lie was temperate.
Caesar Haeduos f rumentum, quodpolliciti essent, flagitabat.
CAES.
Caesar demanded of the Haedui tlie corn which (hereminded them)
they had promised.
Themistocles noctu ambulabat, quod somnum capere non posset.
Cic.
Themistocles used to walk at night because (as he said) he could not
sleep.
Alium rogantes regem misere ad Jovem,
Inutilis quoniam esset qui fuerat datus. PHA.EDR.
Tluy (the frogs) sent envoys to Jupiter to ask for another king,
since (as they complained) tlie one who had been given was useless.
SYNTAX
NARRATIVE IN ORATIO OBLIQUA.
470 Direct Statement.
(1) Ars earum rerum est qu&e
soiuntur; oratoris autem omnis
actio opinionibus, non scientia, con-
tinetur; nametapudeosdicimus
qui nesciunt, et ea dicimus quae
nescimus ipsi. Cic.
Art belongs to tlie things which
are "known ; but the whole splure of
an orator is in opinion, not in know-
ledge ; for we both speak in the pre-
sence of those wlw know not, and
speak of that which we ourselves
know not.
(2) Cum Germanis Haedui semel
Atque iterum armis contenderunt;
magnam calami tatem pulsi acce-
perunt, omnem nobilitatem, omnem
equitatum amiserunt. Sed pejus
victoribus Sequanis quam Haeduis
victis accidit; propterea quod
Ariovistus, rex Germanorum, in
eorum finibus consedit, tertiamque
partem agri Sequani, qui est opti-
mus totius Galliae, occupavit.
Ariovistus barbarus, iracun-
dus, temerarius est.nonpossunt
ejus imperia diutius sustineri.
Indirect Statement.
(Antonius apud Ciceronem docet :)
Artem earum rerum esse
quae sciantur;
oratoris autem omnem actionem
opinione , non scientia, contineri;
quia et apud eos dioat
qui nesciant:
et ea dicat
quae ipse nesciat.
(Antonius teacJies in Cicero :)
Tliat art belongs to tJie things
which are known ;
but tlwt the whole sphere of an orator
is in opinion, not in knowledge ;
because he both speaks before those
loho know not ;
and speaks of that
which he himself knows not.
Locutus est pro Haeduis Divitia-
cus : Cum Germanis H a e d u o s semel
atque iterum armis eontendisse;
magnam calamitatem pulsos acce-
pisse, omnem nobilitatem, omnem
equitatum amisisse. Sed pej us
victoribus Sequanis quam Haeduis
victis accidisse; propterea quod
Ariovistus, rex Germanorum, in eorum
finibus consedisset, tertiamque
partem agri Sequani, qui esset opti-
mus totius Galliae, occupavisset.
Ariovistum esse barbarum,
iracundum, temerarium, non
posse ejus imperia diutius sustineri.
O RATIO OBLIQUA
199
The Haedui have repeatedly fought
with tlie Germans ; tliey have been
defeated and have suffered great mis-
fortune; tliey have lost all their
nobles and all their cavalry. But
worse Jias befallen the conquering
Sequani than the conquered Haedui,
for Ariovistus, king of the Germans,
has settled in their dominions and
occupied a third part of their terri-
tory, which is the best in all Gaul.
Ariovistus is barbarous, passionate
and violent; his commands can no
longer be endured.
(3) Consules scripta ad Caesarem
mandata remittunt, quorum haec
erat summa :
'In Galliam revertere, Arimino
excede, exercitus dimitte; quae si
feceris, Pompeius in Hispanias
ibit.'
The Consuls sent back to Caesar
written instructions, of which this
was the sum total : ' Return into Gaul,
quit Ariminum, and disband your
armies ; when you have done tlwe
things, Pompey will go into Spain.'
(4) Thrasybulus, cum exercitus
triginta tyrannorum fugeret, magna
voce exclamat :
' Cur me victorem f ugitis? Ci-
vium hanc mementote aciem,non
hostium esse ; triginta ego dominis,
non civitati, bellum infer o.'
Thrasybulus, when the army of
the thirty tyrants was in flight, cried
aloud : ' Wliy do you fly from me as
your conqueror? Remember that
this is an army of fellow-citizens,
not of foreign enemies ; I am waging
war on the thirty tyrants, not on the
community.'
Divitiacus said on behalf of the
Haedui : ' That the Haedui had
fought repeatedly with the Germans ;
that, having been defeated, they had
suffered great misfortune (and) had
lost all tJieir nobles, all their cavalry.
But that worse had befallen the con-
quering Sequani than the conquered
Haedui, for Ariovistus, king of the
Germans, had settled in their do-
minions and had occupied a third
part of their territory, which was the
best in all Gaul. Ariovistus was
barbarous, passionate, violent ; his
commands could no longer be en-
dured.'
In Galliam reverteretur, Ari-
mino excede ret, exercitus dimit-
teret; quae si fecisset, Pom-
peium in Hispanias iturum.
Cur se victorem fugiant?
Civium illam meminerint aciem,
non hostium esse; triginta se dom-
inis, non civitati, bellum inf erre.
200
SYNTAX
(5) Oro vos, Veientes (inquit),
ne m e extorrem egentem, ex tanto
modo regno cum liberis adolescenti-
bus ante oculos vestros perire sina-
tis. Alii peregrein regnum Bomam
acciti sunt; ego rex, augens
bello Bomanum imperium, a proxi-
mis scelerata conjuratione pulsus
sum. Patriam regnumque meum
repetere, et persequi ingratos cives
volo. Ferte opem, adjuvate;
vestras quoque veteres injurias
ultum ite, totiens caesas legiones,
agrum ademptum.
I entreat you, men of Veii (said
Tarquin), not to let me with my
young children die before your eyes,
banished in destitution from a king-
dom lately so great. Others were
fetched to Rome from abroad to reign.
I, their king, while enlarging by war
the Roman empire, was expelled by a
wicked conspiracy of my nearest kins-
men. I wish to reclaim my country
and my kingdom, and to punish un-
grateful citizens. Give me lielp, assist
me : hasten to avenge also your own
old wrongs, your legions so often
slaughtered, your land taken from
you.
Orat Tarquinius Veientes ne se
extorrem egentem ex tanto modo
regno cum liberis adolescentibus ante
oculos s u o s perire sinerent: alios
peregre in regnum Bomam a c c i t o s ;
se regem augentem bello Boma-
num imperium, a proximis scelerata
conjuratione pulsum: . . patriam se
regnumque suum repetere et per-
sequi ingratos cives velle: ferrent
opem, adjuvarent; suas quoque
veteres injurias ultum irent, totiens
caesas legiones, agrum ademptum.
Lrv.
PROSODY.
471 PROSODY treats of the Quantity of Syllables and the Laws of Metre.
I. GENERAL KULES OF QUANTITY.
1. A syllable is short when it contains a short vowel followed by a simple
consonant or by another vowel : as pater, deus.
2. A syllable is long when it contains a long vowel or diphthong : frater,
caedes, nemo.
3. A vowel short by nature becomes long by position when it is followed
by two consonants, or by x or z : canto, simplex, oryza.
Exception. — A short vowel before a mute followed by a liquid becomes
doubtful : lugubre, tenebrae, triplex.
4. A long vowel or diphthong becomes short before another vowel, or
before h followed by a vowel : proavus, traho, prieesse.
But in Greek words the vowel or diphthong keeps its length: aer,
Aeneas, Enyo, Meliboeus.
Exceptions.— In flo, Gaius, Ponipei, dius, diei, Ehea (Silvia), the vowel
remains long.
Note. — Prae in compounds is the only Latin word in which a diph-
thong occurs before a vowel.
5. A syllable is called doubtful when it is found in poetry to be some-
times long, sometimes short : Diana, fidei, rei, and genitives in -ius, as illius.
except alius, alterius.
6. The quantity of a stem syllable is kept, as a rule, in compounds and
derivatives : cado occldo, ratus irrltus, flumen flummeus.
Exceptions to this rule are numerous, luceo, lucerna.
472 II. RULE FOR MONOSYLLABLES.
Most monosyllables are long : da, des, me, ver, si, sis, sol, nos, tii, VICN
mus.
Exceptions :
Substantives : cor, fel, mel, os (bone), vir.
Pronouns : is, id, qua (any), quis, quid, quod, quot, tot.
Verbs : dat, dot, it, scit, sit, stat, stet, fac, fer, es (from sum).
Particles : ab, ad, an, at, bis, cis, et, in, nee, ob, per, pol, sat, sed,
sub, ut, vel.
and the enclitics -ne,-que, -ve.
202 PROSODY
III. BULES FOB FINAL SYLLABLES.
1. A final is short.
Exceptions. — Ablatives of decl. 1. mensa, bona; Vocative of Greek
names in as, Aenea ; and of some in es, Anchisa ; Indeclinable
Numerals, triginta ; Imperatives of conj. 1. ama (but puta) ; most
Particles in a ; frustra, interea (but ita, quia, short).
2. E final is short : lege, timete, carere.
Exceptions.— Ablatives of declension 5. re, die, with the deriva-
tives quare, hodie. Cases of many Greek nouns ; also fame. Adverbs
formed from Adjectives ; misere ; also fere, ferme (but bene, male,
facile, impune, temere, short). Imperatives of conj. 2. mone (but
cave is doubtful). Also the Interjection ohe.
3. I final is long : did, plebl, doll.
Exceptions. — Vocatives and Datives of Greek nouns ; Chlori,
Thyrsidi ; but Datives sometimes long : Paridl. Particles ; sicubi,
necubi, nisi, quasi. Mihi, tibi, sibi, ubi, and ibi are doubtful.
4. 0 final is long : virgo, multo, juvo.
Exceptions. — Duo, octo, ego, modo, cito, and a few verbs : puto,
scio, nescio. In the Silver age o was often shortened in Verbs and
Nouns.
5. U final is long : cantu, dictu, diu.
6. Finals in c are long : illic ; except nee and donee.
7. Finals in 1, d, t are short : Hannibal, illud, amavit.
8. Finals in n are. short : Ilion, agmen.
Exceptions. — Many Greek words : Hymen, Ammon.
9. Finals in r are short : calcar, amabitur, Hector.
Exceptions. — Many Greek words : aer, crater ; and compounds
of par : dispar, impair.
10. Finals in as are long : terras, Menalcas.
Exceptions.— Greek nouns of decl. 3. Areas (gen. -adis) and ace.
pi. lampadas ; anas, a duck.
11. Finals in es are long : nubes, videres.
Exceptions.— Cases of Greek nouns : Arcades, Naiades. Nomi-
natives of a few substantives and adjectives with dental stems in
2t, It, or Id : seges, pedes, obses ; also penes. Compounds of es :
ades, potes.
12. Finals in is are short : diceris, utilis, ensis.
Exceptions. — Datives and Ablatives in is, including gratis, foris.
Accusatives in is : navis ; some Greek Nouns in Is : Salamls.
Sanguis, pulvis, are doubtful. 2nd Pers. Sing. Pres. Ind. conj. 4.
audis ; compounds of vis, sis ; also veils, malls, noils. In 2nd Pers.
Sin . Fut. Perf . the ending is doubtful : dixerls.
PROSODY 203
13. Finals in os are long : ventos, custos, sacerdos.
Exceptions. — Greek words in os (os) : Delos, Arcados ; also
compos, impos, exos.
14. Finals in us are short : holus, intus, amamus.
Exceptions. — Nominatives from long stems of decl. 3. are long :
virtus, tellus, incus, juventus ; the contracted cases of decl. 4. :
artus, gradus ; and a few Greek words : Didus, Sapphus (genitive).
15. The Greek words chelys, Tiphys, Erinys have the final syllable short
and the vocative ending y.
ATI A IV. ON THE LAWS OF METRE.
A Verse (versus, line) is composed of a certain number of Feet.
A Foot consists of two or more syllables, of which one has the ictus or
principal accent, said to be in arsis ; the other syllable or syllables are said
to be in thesis.
The principal feet in Latin poetry are the following :
Iambus, one short and one long syllable (^-), eaxo.
Trochee, one long and one short syllable (-^), anna.
Dactyl, one long and two short syllables (-^~), litora.
Anapaest, two short and one long syllable (^^-), patulae.
Spondee, two long syllables ( — ), fato.
Tribrach, three,short syllables (wwi/), temere.
The Spondee often takes the place of the Dactyl in Dactylic verse. It
may also take the place of the Iambus or Trochee in certain parts of an
Iambic or Trochaic verse.
The Tribrach can take the place of the Iambus or the Trochee in any
place but the last, but is more rarely used.
Note. — A short syllable in versification constitutes one ' mora,' or
' time.' A long syllable ( = two short) constitutes two ' morae,' or
' tunes.'
The Iambus, Trochee, Tribrach are feet of three ' times ; ' Dactyl,
Anapaest, Spondee, are feet of four ' times.'
A vowel is cut off at the end of a word if there be a vowel at the
beginning of the next word : ' Phyllid' am' ant' alias,' for ' Phyllida amo
ante alias ; ' this is called Elision (Synaloepha).
A vowel and m are cut off at the end of a word if there be a vowel at
the beginning of the next word : ' 0 curas homin' — 0 quant' — est in rebus
inane,' for ' hominum,' ' quantum.' This is called Ecthlipsis.
A vowel unelided in such a position is said to be in Hiatus.
Ter sunt|c6najti Im!ponere[PeliolOssam.
204 PROSODY
475 V. METRE AND EHYTHM.
A. Metre (metrum, measure) is used in two different senses.
i. It means any system of versification : which may take its name
either (1) from the Foot which prevails in it : Dactylic (Iambic,
Trochaic, Anapaestic) metre ; or (2) from the subjects of which
it treats : Heroic (Elegiac) metre ; or (3) from the musical
instrument to which it was sung : Lyric metres ; or (4) from
the poet who is said to have invented or chiefly used it : Alcaic
metre (from Alcaeus), Sapphic (from Sappho), etc.
ii. Some part of a Verse is called ' a metre.' In Dactylic and some
other verses each foot constitutes ' a metre.' In Iambic,
Trochaic, and Anapaestic verses, two feet constitute ' a metre.'
Note. — Hence a verse gains a name from the number of such metres.
A verse with two metres is called Dimeter.
„ „ three „ „ Trimeter.
„ ,, four „ „ Tetrameter.
„ „ five „ „ Pentameter.
,, ,, six ,, „ Hexameter.
A verse which has its metres complete is said to be acatalectic (unclipt).
If its metres are incomplete, it is catalectic (clipt).
476 B.— Harmonious order of words is called Ehythm. Prose has
rhythm as well as verse ; but that of verse is called Poetic Ehythm. The
dividing of a verse according to rhythm is called sca/ming or scansion.
The method of scansion may be shown by two Dactylic Hexameters of Vergil :
123 4 56
(a) Tityre | tu n patu]lae n recu[bans n sub | tegmine | fagl
(b) Formo|sam n resojnare |, do|ces n Ama|ryllida | silvas.
Note. — The numerals and single strokes show the six feet or
metres of the Hexameter.
Caesura means the division of a word before the ending of a foot.
There are three caesuras in each of the verses (a), (b), marked by a short
double stroke. A verse without caesura is unrhythmical and inadmissible.
Caesura after a long syllable is called strong, and is most frequent. Caesura
after a short syllable is called weak, as that in the third foot of (b) after
-nare. (See ' Dactylic Hexameter.') The ending of word and foot together
is called Dialysis : — Tityre, tegmine.
VI. DACTYLIC, IAMBIC AND SOME LYRIC SYSTEMS OF VERSE.
477 A. Dactylic Hexameter:
This Metre has six feet. The first four may be Ductyls or Spondees.
The fifth must be a Dactyl (rarely a Spondee). The sixth a Spondee or
Trochee (the last syllable in a verse being doubtful).
PROSODY
205
Scheme.
3 4
(See the Examples, a, b, 476).
Note. — A verse called Hypermeter (a syllable over-measure) is
occasionally found, the syllable in excess being elided before the
initial vowel of the next line :
5erea cui gradlbus surgebant llmina nexae]que
Acre trabes . . .
The Caesura by far most common in Dactylic Hexameters is that in
the third foot (called Penthemimeral), which is generally strong, as in (a)
after patulae, but occasionally weak, as in (b) after resonare.
Next in importance is that in the fourth foot, called Hephthemimeral,
which is sometimes the chief caesura of the verse : as
(c) clamor | es simul | horren|dos ,, ad | sidera | tollit.
The Trihemimeral Caesura in the second foot often contributes to the
i-hythra usefully, as after clamores (c).
Note. — Hemimeris means ' a half.' Hence ' Trihemimeral ' means ' after
three half-feet ' : cla-mor-es ; ' Penthemimeral ' means ' after five half -feet ' :
hie il-lum vi-di ; ' Hephthemimeral ' means ' after seven half-feet ' : quam
Juno fertur terns. This notation counts two short syllables as one half-
foot : Tltyre tu patu-l&e reczt-bans.
The Heroic Measure of Epic poets, Vergil, Lucan, &c., consists of
Dactylic Hexameters only.
478 B. Dactylic Pentameter :
This Verse consists of two parts, called Penthemimers, which are kept
distinct. The first Penthemimer contains two feet (Dactyls or Spondees)
and a long syllable. The second contains also two feet (both Dactyls) and a
long syllable.
Scheme.
12 12
Example.
tu domi|nus tu|vlr II tu mihl | frater e|ras.
This Verse is. not used alone, but follows an Hexameter in the Elegiac
Distich :
Donee eris felix, multos numerabis amicos,
TempSra si fuerlnt nublla, solus eris.
The chief Elegiac poets are Ovid, Tibullus, and Propertius.
479 C' ^am^i° Trimeter or Senarius :
This Metre has six feet. Each may be an Iambus :
Suis | et l[psa Bojma vljribus | ruit.
206 PROSODY
But a Spondee may stand in the first, third, and fifth foot ; and (rarely)
a Dactyl or Anapaest in the first. A Tribrach sometimes takes the place
of an Iambus, except in the two last feet.
1
\J —
2
w "•
Scher
3
^ —
ne.
4
*> —
5
w ••
~ V W
w s/ —
labunjtur aljtis n in|terim | rlpis | aquae.
Canidl[a brevijbus n im|plica|ta vi|peris.
positosjque ver|nas n dl|tis ex | amen | domus.
The usual Caesura is after the first syllable of the third foot. Another
less usual, is after the first syllable of the fourth foot ; as,
Ibe[ricis | perusjte N fu|nibus | latus.
The Trimeter may form a distinct measure.
4L80 D. Iambic Dimeter :
This Verse leaves out the third and fourth feet of the Trimeter, with
which it is used to form an Iambic Distich :
paterjna rujra bojbus ex|ercet | suis,
solu|tus 6m|ni fe|nore.
Horace uses this Distich oftener in his Epodes than any other measure.
481 E. Strophic Metres :
The lyric poets Horace and Catullus have used more than twenty metres.
But we shall notice here only the Sapphic and Alcaic Stanzas, each of
four lines.
Note. — Anacrusis is a short or long syllable, which introduces the
scansion of a verse.
Base is a foot of two syllables (Spondee, Iambus or Trochee) which
introduces the scansion.
These may be represented in English :
Anacrusis 12 3
0 | Mari Jon's a | bonnie | lass
Base 12 3
0 my | Mari on's a | bonnie ] lass
A double base means two feet, each of two syllables, introducing the
scansion.
PROSODY
207
432 !• The Sapphic Stanza :
The Stanza is scientifically scanned in Latin by three verses of this
form :
Double Base Dactyl Trochee Trochee
followed by a verse called Adonius,
Dactyl Trochee
1. Terrult gen|tes grave" | ne re|dlret
2. Saeculum Pyr|rhae nova | monstra | questae
3. Omne cum Pro|teus pecus | egit | altos
4. Visere | montes.
Sappho used two Trochees as the double base ; but Latin poets always
lengthened the fourth syllable.
The strong Caesura after the fifth syllable is most frequent, but the
weak Caesura after the sixth is occasionally used for variety.
Non semel dlcemus n lo trlumphe.
The Adonian verse is so closely united with the third line that Hiatus
at the close of this line is unusual, and words are sometimes divided between
the two :
Thraclo bacchante magis sub inter-
lunla vento.
Note. — A Hypermeter also occurs (477, note).
Dlssidens plebl numero beato | rum
Exlmit virtus.
483 2. The Alcaic Stanza:
Anacr. Double Base Dactyl Troch.
L0j.w.« |j.ww
Anacr. Troch. Spond. Troch. Troch.
1. Qui | r<5re puro | Castall [ Se 15|vifc
2. Cri|nes solutos | qui Lycijae telnet
3. Dujmeta | natajlemque | silvam
4. Dellus | et Pata|reus AJpoilo.
208 PROSODY.
Boles for the Rhythm of the Alcaic Stanza.
(a) First and Second Lines.
(1) A short syllable at the beginning is rare.
(2) The fifth syllable generally ends a word ; but an Elision often occurs
after it : as
Quo Styx et mvls|i horrida Taenari.
(3) The fifth and the last syllables are rarely monosyllables.
(b) Third Line.
(1) The first syllable is seldom short.
(2) The line rarely begins with a word of four syllables, and only when
Elision follows : as
Funalia et vectes et arcus.
never with two dissyllables.
(3) The line should not end with a word of four syllables : rarely with
two dissyllables.
(4) No monosyllable should end the line except (rarely) et or in, with an
Elision :
Cum flore Maecenas rosarum, et
Incude dlfflngas retusum in
(c) Fourth Line.
(1) If the first Dactyl ends a word, the second should end in the middle
of a word.
(2) A weak Caesura in the second Dactyl should be avoided, but is
sometimes justified by the sense of the passage :
Juppiter Ipse ruenstumultu.
Stesichorique graves Camenae.
Note. — Hypermeters occur only twice in Horace :
Sors exitura, et nos in aeter|num
Exilium imposltura cymbae.
Cum pace delabentis Etru]scum
In mare.
But in his third and fourth books he avoids ending a verse with a vowel
or m before a verse in the same stanza beginning with a vowel.
APPENDIX L 209
APPENDIX I.
DERIVED AND COMPOUNDED WORDS.
SUBSTANTIVES are derived from Verbs, Adjectives and other Substan-
tives. The chief classes of Substantives derived from Verbs are the
following : —
From the Verb-Stem:
With Suffix
-a, denoting the agent : scriba, notary (scribo) ; advena, new comer (ad-
venio) ; conviva, guest (con-vivo).
-or, abstract words denoting action or feeling : amor, love (amo) ; timor,
fear (timeo) ; clamor, outcry (clamo) ; terror, terror (terreo).
-ium, denoting action or effect : gaudium, j'oy (gaudeo) ; ingenium, mind
(ingigno) ; judicium, judgment (judico, for jus-dico) ; naufragium,
shipwreck (naufragio, formed from the Stems of navis, ship, and
frango, break).
-ies, denoting a thing formed : acies, line of battle (aceo) ; facies, face,
form (facio) ; effigies, likeness (effingo) ; species, appearance (specie) ;
series, order (sero).
•es : sedes, seat (sedeo) ; nubes, cloud (nubo).
•io, denoting the thing acted on : regio, region (rego) ; legio, legion (lego);
opinio, opinion (opinor).
-men, denoting the instrument or the thing done : agmen, column (ago) ;
tegmen, covering (tego) ; unguen, ointment (unguo).
-mentum : documentum, document (doceo) ; instrumentum, instrument
(instruo).
•bulum, -brum, denoting the instrument or object : vocabulum, name
(voco) ; venabulum, hunting-spear (venor) ; flabrum, blast (flo, Stem
fla-).
-culum, -crum : curriculum, course (curro) ; spectaculum, spectacle
(specto) ; sepulcrum, tomb (sepelio).
-ile, denoting the instrument : sedile, seat (sedeo) ; cubile, couch (cubo).
From the Supine Stem:
-tor, -sor, denoting the agent : arator, ploughman (aro) ; auctor, author
(augeo) ; victor, victor (vinco) ; auditor, hearer (audio) ; dictator, dic-
tator (dicto) ; sponsor, surety (spondeo) ; cursor, runner (curro).
A few Nouns in -tor form a feminine in -trix, as victrix.
P
210 APPENDIX I.
With Suffix
-tus, -SUB, denoting action : eventus, event (e-venio) ; motus, motion,
(moveo) ; sonitus, sound (sono) ; cursus, running (curro) ; plausus,
clapping (plaudo) ; lusus, game (ludo).
•tura, -sura, denoting function or result of action : dictatura, dictatorship
(dicto) ; cultura, culture (colo); pictura, picture (pingo) ; tonsura,
tonsure (tondeo) ; caesura, dividing (caedo).
-tio, -sio, abstract : actio, action (ago) ; cogitatio, thought (cogito) ; relatio,
relation (refero) ; visio, sight (video) ; pensio, payment (pendo).
Substantives derived from Adjectives :
-ia : memoria, memory (memor) ; concordia, peace (concors) ; sapientia,
wisdom (sapiens) ; divitiae, pi., riches (dives).
-itia : laetitia, joy fulness (laetus) ; amicitia, friendship (amicus) ; mollitia,
also mollities, softness (mollis).
-tas : libertas, freedom (liber) ; veritas, truth (verus) ; felicitas, Jiappiness
(felix).
•tudo : fortitude, valour (fortis) ; multitude, multitude (multus).
-monia : acrimonia, sliarpness (acer) ; sanctimonia, sanctity (sanctus) ;
parcimonia, parsimony (parcus).
Substantives derived from Substantives:
•tor : viator, traveller (via) ; janitor, doorkeeper (janua) ; balneator, bath-
keeper (balneum). The feminines janitrix, balneatrix are used.
-atus: senatus, senate (senex) ; magistratus, magistracy (magister) ; con-
sulatus, consulship (consul).
-io, -o : ludio, player (ludus) ; pellio, furrier (pellis) ; centurio, captain of
a hundred (centum, centuria) ; praedo, robber (praeda).
-arius : aquarius, water-carrier (aqua) ; tabularius, registrary (tabula). A
secondary derivative is tabellarius, letter-carrier (tabella).
-arium: granarium, granary (granum) ; tabularium, archives (tabula),
-etum, -turn : olivetum, olive-grove (oliva) ; rosetum, rose-garden (rosa) ;
arbustum, shrubbery ; also the later form arboretum (stem arbos-,
arbor-) ; salictum, willow-ground (salix).
-ina, -inum: textrina, weaver's shop (textor) ; pistrinum, bakehouse
(pistor).
-ulus -olus, -a, -urn : anulus, little ring (annus) ; gladiolus, little sword
(gladius) ; formula, little form (forma) ; lineola, little line (linea) ;
scutulum, little shield (scutum) ; palliolum, little cloak (pallium),
-ellus, -a, -um: agellus, small field (ager); fabella, short story (fabula) ;
flagellum, little whip (flagrum) ; corolla, chaplet (corona).
-«nlus, -a, um : versiculus, little verse (versus) ; matercula, little mother
(mater) ; reticulum, little net (rete).
APPENDIX I. 211
Adjectives derived from Verbs :
With Suffix
-ax : audax, daring (audeo) ; rapax, grasping (rapio) ; tenax, tenacious
(teneo) ; ferax, fruitful (fero).
-bundus, -cundus : f uribundus, raging (furo) ; moribundus, dying (morior) ;
jucundus, pleasant (juvo).
-uus : continuus, continuous (con-tineo) ; vacuus, empty (vacuo) ; assiduus,
persevering (assideo).
-ulus : tremulus, trembling (tremo) ; querulus, complaining (queror) ; cre-
dulus, trustful (credo),
-idus, -idis : calidus, liot (caleo) ; pavidus, timid (paveo) ; viridis, green
(vireo).
-ilis: utilis, useful (utor) ; facilis, easy (facio) ; docilis, teacliable (doceo).
-bilis : penetrabilis, penetrable (penetro) ; flebilis, lamentable (fleo) ; but
sometimes active ; penetrabile frigus, penetrating cold.
-ivus, joined to the Supine Stem : captivus, captive (capio) ; nativus,
native (nascor) ; fugitivus, fugitive (fugio).
Adjectives derived from Nouns :
•ius : regius, royal (rex) ; plebeius, plebeian (plebs) ; egregius, out of the
common (grex).
-icus : bellicus, warlike (bellum) ; barbaricus, barbarous (barbarus) ;
Gallicus, Gaulish ; civicus, civic (civis).
-ticus : rusticus, belonging to the country (rus) ; domesticus, domestic,
(domus).
-anas, -ianus: humanus, human (homo); urbanus, urban (urbs) ;
Bomanus, Roman (Roma); Africanus, African; praetorianus, prae-
torian (praetor).
-nus : fraternus, fraternal (frater) ; aeternus, eternal (aetas) ; externus,
external (exter) ; alternus, alternate (alter),
-inus : marinus, marine (mare) ; Latinus, Latin ; palatinus, belonging
to the palace (palatium).
-estis : caelestis, heavenly (caelum) ; agrestis, rural (ager).
-ensis : f orensis, belonging to the forum ; castrensis, belonging to the camp
(castra).
-alis, -aris : naturalis, natural (natura) ; generalis, general (genus) ;
regalis, kingly (rex) ; vulgaris, common (vulgus) ; salutaris, "healthful
(salus). (See 20.)
-osus : formosus, beautiful (forma) ; gloriosus, glorious (gloria),
-lentus : fraudulentus, deceitful (fraus) ; turbulentus, noisy (turba).
-bris, -cris: funebris, funereal (funus) ; mediocris, middling (medius).
-eus : aureus, golden (aurum) ; ferreus, iron (ferrum).
-ulus : parvulus (parvus).
•ellus : misellus (miser).
rl
APPENDIX I.
With Suffix
-tus : modestus, moderate (modus) ; robustus, strong (robur) ; vetustus,
aged (vetus).
•tinus : crastinus, of to-morrow (eras) ; diutinus, lasting (diu).
DERIVED VERBS.
Verbs derived from Nouns.
A-Stems euro, take care (cura) ; onero, burden (onus) ; paco, pacify (pax).
Deponents : moror, delay (raora) ; dignor, deem worthy
(dignus) ; miseror, pity (miser).
E-Stems floreo, bloom (flos) ; luceo, shine (lux) ; flaveo, am yellow
(flavus).
U-Stems mctuo, fear (metus) ; minuo, diminish (minus).
I-Stems finio, limit (finis) ; servio, am a slave (servus) ; largior, bestow
(largus).
VERBS COMPOUNDED WITH PREPOSITIONS.
a, ab, abs- a-verto, turn away ; ab-sum, am absent ; abs-terreo, frighten
away.
ad ad-eo, goto; ad-spicio, look at; accipio, accept; affero, carry to 'T
alloquor, address ; appono, place near ; arripio, seize ; assentior,
agree ; attraho, attract.
ambi amb-io, go around.
con con-traho, contract ; compono, compose ; committo, commit; colligo,
collect ; corripio, seize violently ; confido, rely on.
de de-cedo, depart ; decipio, deceive ; descendo, come down.
6, ex e-duco, lead forth ; e-loquor, utter ; e-voco, evoke ; effundo, pour
out ; ex-eo, go forth ; ex-pello, expel.
in in-fero, bring into ; impero, command ; immineo, overhang ; illigo,
bind on ; irrigo, water ; induro, make hard.
inter inter-sum, am among ; interrogo, question ; intellego, understand.
ob ob-tineo, maintain; offero, offer; oppono, oppose; occurro, meet, occur.
per per-mitto, let go, permit ; pereo, perish ; pelluceo, sliine through,
am transparent ; perterreo, frighten greatly.
post post-pono, put after.
prae prae-cedo, go before ; praefero, prefer ; praesto, excel.
praeter : praeter-eo, pass by.
pro, prod- : prod-eo, go or come forth ; pro-cedo, proceed ; pro-pono, propose ;
promo, produce.
red-, re- : red-eo, return ; re-cordor, remember ; re-fero, refer ; restituo, restore.
sed-, se- : sed-eo, sit ; se-cerno, se-paro, separate ; se-cludo, shut up, seclude.
»ub sub-do, subdue ; sub-mergo, submerge ; suc-curro, succour ; suf-fero,
suffer ; sug-gero, suggest ; sup-plico, supplicate ; sur-ripio, steal ;
suspicio, look up at, suspect.
trans, tra-: trans-mitto, transmit; trans-porto, transport; traduco, lead
across ; traiicio, throw across.
APPENDIX I. 213
A few Verbs are compounded with Adverbs, as :
benedico, commend (bene dico) ; benefacio, benefit (bene facio)
maledico, speak ill (of) (male dico) ; rnalefacio, do evil (to) (male facio).
satisfacio, satisfy (satis facio) ; satisdo, give bail (satis do).
The following are a few specimens of compound words :
Noun and Verb.
auceps, birdcatcher (avis avi-, capio).
agricola, husbandman (ager agro-, colo).
fidicen, lute-player i fides fidi- \
tibicen, flute-player \ tibia tibia- [ cano
tubicen, trumpeter I tuba tuba- /
artifex, artisan (ars arti-, facio).
Lucifer, morning star (lux luc-, fero) ; frugifer, -a, -am, fruit-bearing
(frux frug-, fero).
Grajugena, Greek (Graius Graio-, gigno).
armiger, armour-bearer (arma armo-, gero).
jusjurandum, oath (jus-, juro).
eenatusconsultum, decree of the senate (senatus senatu-, consultum
consulto-, from consulo).
Two Substantives, or Substantive and Adjective.
paterfamilias, father of a family (pater, familias, an old genitive).
respublica, state, republic (res, publicus).
bipes, two-footed (bis, pes).
tridens, three-pronged, trident (tres, dens).
214 APPENDIX 1L
APPENDIX II.
EOMAN MONEY, WEIGHTS, MEASURES, AND TIME.
MONET.
a. The As (Libra), or pound of 12 ounces (unciae), was thus divided :
Uncia = 1 oz. or i of the As. Septunx = 7 oz. or ^ of the As.
Sextans =2 „ | „ Bes = 8 „ § „
Quadrans = 3 „ \ „ Dodrans = 9 „ f „
Triens = 4 „ i Dextans =10 „
" J 77 '» O
Quincunx = 5 „ ^ „ Deunx =11 ,. ii .»
Semissis =6 „ | „
b. Unciae usurae = i per cent, per month = 1 per cent, per annum.
Sextantes = | ,, „ = 2 „ „
etc. etc. etc.
. Asses usurae = 1 per cent, per month = 12 per cent, per annum.
Asses usurae were also called centesimae : binae centesimae = 2 per
cent, per month = 24 per cent., probably. Unciarium fenus was 1 uncia
yearly per as = 8£ per cent, per annum for the year of 10 months.
c Heres ex asse . . . means heir to the whole estate.
Heres ex semisse, or . . >
Heres ex dimidia parte .) » ^ir to | of the estate,
etc. etc.
d. The Sestertius (Nummus), or Sesterce, was a silver coin equal
to more than 2 asses, being \ of the Denarius (coin of 10 asses). Its
symbol is HS (for IIS., duo et semis, 24 asses).
The Sestertium ( = 1,000 sestertii) was not a coin, but a sum, and
is only used in the Plural number.
Sestertia, in the Plural (also represented by HS.) joined with the
Cardinal or Distributive Numbers, denotes so many 1,000 sestertii.
The Numeral Adverbs, joined with (or understanding) sestertii
(Gen. Sing.), se&tertium, or HS., denote so many 100,000 sestertii '.
Thus HS.X = Sestertii decem, 10 sesterces.
HS.Y = Sestertia decem, 10,000 sesterces.
HS.X = Sestertium deciens, 1,000,000 sesterces.
APPENDIX II. 215
e. Fractions might also be expressed by the Ordinals as Deno-
minators and the Cardinals for Numerators (above 1). Thus, £ is
dimidia pars', j tertia pars, etc.; % sexta or diinidia tertia (£ x ^) ;
^ octava pars or dimidia quarta (£ x ^), etc. So ^j was tertia septima
($ x i). Again, f is either duae tertiae, or duae paries, or dimidia et
sexta (£ + & - ij). And f is £res quartae, or £re« partes, or dimidia et
quarta (£ + i = |).
WEIGHT.
The unit or ' as ' of weight was the ' libra,' or Roman pound (the
supposed weight which a man could support on his hand horizontally
extended). It was divided duodecimally, the ' uncia ' (ounce] being its
12th part ; the ' scripulum ' (scruple] the 24th part of an uncia.
Some authorities rate the libra at 5-044 English grains nearly.
LENGTH.
The unit or 'as' of length was 'pes' (foot), also divided duo-
decimally, the ' uncia ' (inch] being its 12th part.
' Cubitus ' (cubit) was 1 J foot. ' Ulna ' (ell) was variously measured,
sometimes = cubit. Land was measured out by the ' decempeda' (rod
of 10 feet). In roads the unit was ' passus,' a pace or double step
(5 feet). Mille passus (5,000 feet) were the Roman mile; £ of which
was called ' stadium ' (furlong]. The exact measure of the ' pes ' is a
difficult point. High authorities make it less than the English foot
by j35 of an inch.
SURFACE.
The 'as' of surface was 'jugerum' (the Roman acre), about $ of
an English acre. ' Scripulum,' or ' decempeda quadrata ' (ten square
feet) was its most important subdivision.
CAPACITY.
1. Liquid measure.
The ' as ' was ' sextarius ' (less than a pint), divided into 12
' cyathi,' one of which (its ' uncia ') was not quite half an ordinary wine,
glass. 24 sextarii were 1 ' urna,' and 2 urnae were an ' amphora,' a
vessel of 10 cubic Roman feet.
2. Dry measure.
Here too the ' as ' was ' sextarius ' and the ' cyathus ' its ' uncia ; '
16 sextarii made the ' modius,' which approached 2 gallons English
(\ bushel).
TIME. — THE ROMAN CALENDAR.
Every Roman month had three chief days : Kalendae (Calends)
Nonae (Nones), Idus (Ides). The Calends were always the 1st day of
the month ; the Nones were usually on the 5th ; the Ides on the 13th ;
but in four months the Nones were on the 7th, the Ides on the 15th.
216
APPENDIX II.
March, May, July, October ; these are they
Make Noo.es the 7th, Ides the 15th day.
These three days, the Calends, Nones, and Ides, were taken as
points, from which the other days were counted backwards. That is,
the Eomans did not say, such and such a day after, etc., but such and
such a day before the Calends, or Nones, or Ides. They reckoned
inclusively, counting in the days at both ends ; therefore the rules
are : (1) For days before the Calends subtract the day of the month
from the number of days in the month increased by two. (2) For
days before the Nones or Ides subtract from the day on which they
fall, increased by one.
Examples. — May 31, Pridie Kalendas Junias.
„ 30, Ante diem tertium (a.d. III.) Kal. Jun.
„ 11, „ „ quintum (a.d. V.) Id. Mai.
„ 2, „ „ sextum (a.d. VI.) Non. Mai.
•§*•
MARTnrs, MAIUS,
JAXUARIUS, AUGUS-
APRILIS, Juxius,
FEBP.UARJTS, 28
Tila
JULIUS, OCTO-
TUS, DECEMBER,
SEPTEMBER, NO-
Days — in every
%X
BER, 31 Days.
31 Days.
VEMBER, 30 Days.
fourth Year 29.
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Pridie
[In Leap-year, Feb. 24th (a.d. VI. Kal. Mart.) was twice reckoned, —
hence this day was called DIES BISSEXTUS, and leap-year itself
ANNUS BISSEXTUS.]
APPENDIX II.
217
Note 1.— Ante diem tertium (a.d. III.) Kal. Jun., means ' on the third
day before the Kalends of June,' or ' before the Kalends of June by three days.'
Diem tertium, being placed between ante and Kalendas, is attracted to the
Accusative Case. This mode of expression became so purely idiomatic that
it was used with Prepositions : ante diem tertium, ante diem sextum, &c.
Note 2. — The names of the months are adjectives used in agreement with
mensis, m. expressed or understood, Januarius, Aprilis, September, &c. The
old names of July and August were Quintilis, Sextilis, but later they were
called Julius and Augustus after the two Caesars.
A. Aulus
C. Gaius
Cn. Gnaem
D. Decimus
K. Kaeso
L. Lucius
ABBREVIATIONS.
(1) PRAENOJIINA.
M. Marcus
M'. Manius
Mam. Mamercus
P. Publius
Q. Quintus
S. (Sex.) Sextus
Ser. Servius
Sp. Spurius
T. Titus
Ti. (Tib.) Tiberius
Note. — A Eoman of distinction had at least three names : the
Praenomen, individual name ; the Nomen, name showing the Gens
or clan ; and the Cognomen, surname showing the Familia or family.
Thus, Lucius Junius Brutus expressed Lucius of the Gens Junia and
Familia Brutorum. To these were sometimes added one or more
Agnomina, titles either of honour (as Africanus, Macedonicus, Magnus,
etc.), or expressing that a person had been adopted from another
Gens : as Aemilianus, applied to the younger Scipio Africanus, who
was the son of L. Paulus Aemilius, but adopted by a Scipio. The
full name of the emperor Augustus (originally an Octavius) after he
had been adopted by his uncle's will and adorned by the Senate with
a title of honour, was Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus Augustus.
A. D. Ante diem
A. U. C. Anno urbis
conditae
Aed. Aedilis
Cal. (Kal.) Calendae
Cos. Consul
Coss. Consules
D. Divus
Des. Designatus
Eq. Rom. Eques Eo-
manus
(2) VAEIA.
F. Filius
HS. Sestertius, Ses-
tertium
Id. Idus
Imp. Imperator
L. Libra
LL. Dupondius
Non. Nonae
0. M. Optimus Maximus
P. C. Patres Con-
scripti
P. M. Pontifex Maximus
P. R. Populus Romanus
PI. Plebis
Proc. Proconsul
S. Senatus
S. P. Q. R. Senatus
Populusque Romanus
S. C. Senatusconsultum
S. D. P. Salutem dicit
plurimam
Tr. Tribunua
Zi8 APPENDIX III.
APPENDIX III.
FIGUEES OP SPEECH;
OE PECULIAB FORMS FOUND IN SYNTAX AND IN KHETORIC.
FIGURES OF SYNTAX.
Ellipsis (omission). — Words are left out which can be supplied from the
sense. Thus are used :
(1) An Adjective without its Substantive: Gelida, calida (aqua);
dextra, sinistra (man us).
(2) A Genitive without the word on which it depends: Caecilia
Metelli (filia), Faustus Sullae (filius).
(3) A Verb without its Object: obire (mortem) ; movere (castra).
(4) A Sentence without its Verb : Suus cuique mos. Quid multa ?
(dicam).
Pleonasmus (redundance). — Use of needless words : Sic ore locuta est.
VEKG.
Zeugma.— Connexion of a Verb or Adjective with two words or clauses to
both of which it does not equally belong ; therefore Zeugma is a sort
of Ellipsis : Ex spoliis et torquem et cognomen i n d u i t ; put on the
necklace and assumed the surname. Agreement with one only of two
or more Subjects is also called Zeugma.
Syllepsis. — Connexion of a Verb or Adjective with a Composite Subject.
Synesis. — Agreement with meaning not with form :
1 Gender. Capita conjurationis virgis caesi sunt. Lrv. Capita,
though Neuter in form, is Masculine in meaning, therefore
caesi.
2. Number. A Collective Noun or a Phrase implying more than one,
though Singular in form, may take a Plural Verb : Cetera classis
...fugerunt. Lrv. Optimus quisque jussis paruere. TAC.
Attraction. — Words are drawn by the influence of others to take irregular
constructions : (1) attraction of Copulative Verb (196) ; (2) attraction
of Belative and of Adjective to Relative Clause (332). Attraction of
Case happens after Copulative Verbs, especially the Dative (224), and
especially with licet esse : Vobis licet esse beat is. HOB. Licuit esse
otioso Themistocli. Cic.
APPENDIX III. 219
Asyndeton. — Omission of Conjunctions : Abiit, excessit, evasit, erupit.
Cic.
Polysyndeton. — Redundance of Conjunctions: Una Eurusque Notusque
ruunt creberque procellis Africus. VERO.
Hendiadys. — Use of two Substantives coupled by a Conjunction for a
Substantive and Adjective: Pateris libamus et auro (for patens
aureis). VERO.
Hyperbaton. — Alteration of natural order of words : Per te deos oro (for
per deos te oro). The four following figures belong to Hyperbaton :
(1) Anacoluthon. — Passing from one construction to another before
the former is completed: Si, ut Graeci dicunt, omnes
aut Graios esse aut barbaros, vereor ne Eomulus bar-
barorum rex fuerit. Cic.
(2) Hysteron-proteron.— When, of two things, that which naturally
comes first is placed last : Moriamur et in media arma ruamus.
VERG.
(3) Anastrophe. — Placing a Preposition after its Case : quos inter for
inter quos. HOR.
(4) Parenthesis. — Interpolation of one sentence within another:
At tu (nam divum servat tutela poetas), praemoneo,
vati parce, puella, sacro. TIBULL.
Tmesis. —Separation of the parts of a compound word : Quae me cumque
vocant terrae. VERG. (for quaecumque).
Enallage. — Use of one word for another :
(1) One Part of Speech for another: aliud eras (alius dies cras-
tinus).
(2) One Case for another : Matutine pater, seu Jane libentius audis.
HOR. (for Janus.)
(3) One Number for another : n o s f or ego ; miles for milites.
Hypallage. — Interchange of Cases : Dare classibus Austros. VERG. (for
dare classes Austris.) Also attraction of Adjectives to Sub-
stantives to which they do not properly belong : Fontium
gelidae perennitates. Cic. (for fontium gelidorum perenni-
tates.)
FIGURES OF RHETORIC.
Metaphora. — One expression put for another which has some resemblance
to it in a different kind, generally a concrete for an abstract ; portus
for refugium ; sen tin a (dregs) reipublicae for turpissimi cives :
exulto for gaudeo. A strong metaphor is often qualified by quasi,
tamquam, quidam, or ut ita dicam : In una philosophia quasi taber-
naculum vitae suae allocarunt. Cic. Scopas, ut ita dicam, mihi
videntur dissolvere. Cic.
220 APPENDIX III.
Metonymia. — A related word conveying the same idea is put for another.
Mars for bellum; cedant arma togae (Cic.) forcedat bellum paci ;
juventus for juvenes ; Graecia for Graeci ; aurum for vasa aurea.
Synecdoche. — The part stands for the whole : Caput for homo; tectum
for domus ; carina for na vis.
Allegoria. — A chain of metaphors :
Claudite jam rivos, pueri, sat prata biberunt. VERG.
Cease to sing, sliepherds, recreation enough IMS been taken.
Hyper bole. — E xaggeration.
Litotee. — Less is said than is meant : Non laudo for culpo.
Ironla. — One thing is said while the contrary is meant, but so that the real
meaning may be understood : E g r e g i a m vero laudem et spolia a m p 1 a
refertis tuque puerque tuus. VERG. (ignoble praise and paltry spoils).
Climax. — A high point of effect led up to gradually : Quod libet iis, licet ;
quod licet, possunt ; quod possunt, audent. Cic.
Polyptoton. — Cases of the same Noun are brought together : Jam clipeus
clipeis, umbone repellitur umbo; enseminax ensis, pede pes
et cuspide cuspis. STAT.
Paronomasia. — A play upon the sound of words : Tibi parata sunt verb a,
huic verbera. TER.
Antithesis. — Contrast of opposites: Urbis amatorem Fuscum salvere
jubemus ruris amatores. HOR.
Oxymoron. — Union of seeming contraries: Temporis angusti mansit con-
cordia discors. LUCAN.
Periphrasis. — Description of a simple fact by various attending circum-
stances. Instead of ' Now night is approaching,' Vergil says Et jam
summa procul villarum culmina fumant, majoresque cadunt altis de
montibus umbrae. See the beautiful periphrases of old age and death
in Ecclesiastes, ch. xii.
Simile.— Illustration of a statement by an apt comparison, as : Per urbes
Hannibal Italas ceu flamma per taedas vel Eurus per Siculas equitavit
undas. HOR.
Apostrophe. — An appeal to some person or thing: Quid non mortalia
pectora cogis, auri sacra fames? VERG.
Aposiopesis. — The conclusion of a thought is suppressed: Quos ego ...
sed motos praestat componere fluctus. VERG.
Prosopopoeia. — Personification. An abstract idea, as faith, hope, youth,
memory, fortune, is addressed or spoken of as a person : Te Spes et
albo rara Fides colit velata panno. HOB.
APPENDIX IV.
APPENDIX IV.
MEMORIAL LINES ON THE GENDER OF LATIN
SUBSTANTIVES.
I. General Rules.
The Gender of a Latin Noun
by meaning, form, or use is shown.
1. A Man, Month, Mountain, Eiver, Wind,
and People Masculine we find :
Bomulus, October, Pindus, Padus, Eurus, Achlvi.
2. A Woman, Island, Country, Tree,
and City, Feminine we see :
Penelope, Cyprus, Germania, laurus, Athenae.
3. To Nouns that cannot be declined
The Neuter Gender is assigned :
Examples fas and nefas give
And the Verb-Noun Infinitive :
Est summum nefas fallere:
Deceit is gross impiety.
Common are: sacerdos, dux, priest (priestess), leader
vates, parens et conjux, seer, parent, wife (husband)
clvis, comes, custos, vindex, citizen, companion, guard, avenger
adulescens, infans, index, youth (maid), infant, informer
judex, testis, artlfex judge, witness, artist
praesul, exsul, opifex, director, exile, worker
heres, miles, incohl, heir (heiress), soldier, inliabitant
auctor, augur, advena, autlwr, augur, new-comer
hostis, obses, praeses, ales, enemy, hostage, president, bird
patruelis et satelles, cousin, attendant
munlceps et interpres, burgess, interpreter
juvems et antistes, young person, overseer
aurlga, princeps : add to these charioteer, chief
bos, damma,talpa, serpens, sus, ox (cow), deer, mole, serpent, swine
camelus, cams, tJgrls, perdix,
grus. camel, dog, tiger, partridge, crane
(For exceptions see p. 15.)
222
APPENDIX IV.
paunch, Great Bear, linen
distaff, ground, vine-leaf
winnowing -fan, pear-tree
sapphire
sea, poison
common people
II. Special Rules for the Declensions.
Decl. 1 (A-Stems).
Rule. — Feminine in First a, e,
Masculine as, es will be.
Exc. Nouns denoting Males in a
are by meaning Mascula :
and Masculine is found to be
Hadria, the Adriatic Sea.
Decl. 2 (0-Stems).
JRule. — 0 -nouns in us and er become
Masculine, but Neuter um.
Exc. Feminine are found in MS,
alvus, Arctus, carbasus,
colus, hunms, pampmus,
vannus : also trees, as p I r u s ;
with some jewels, as sapphlrus ;
Neuter pelagus and virus.
Vulgus Neuter commonly,
rarely Masculine we see.
Decl. 3 (Consonant and I-S terns).
Rule 1. — T h i r d-N o u n s Masculine prefer
endings o, or, os, and er;
add to which the ending es,
if its Cases have increase.
Exc. (a) Feminine exceptions show
Substantives in do and go.
But llgo, ordo, praedo, cardo, spade, order, pirate, hinge
Masculine, and Common margo. margin
(b) Abstract Nouns in To call
Femlnina, one and all :
Masculine will only be
things that you may touch or see,
(as curculiO, vespertllio, weevil, bat
pfigio, sclpio, and papllio) dagger, staff, butterfly
with the Nouns that number show,
such as ternio, senio. 3, 6
^c) Echo Feminine we name : echo
caro (carnis) is the same. flesh
APPENDIX IV.
223
(d) Aequor, marmor, cor decline
Neuter ; arbor Feminine.
(e) Of the Substantives in os,
Feminine are cos and dos ;
while, of Latin Nouns, alone
Neuter are os (ossis), bone
and os (oris), mouth : a few
Greek in os are Neuter too.*
(/) Many Neuters end in er,
slier, acer, verber, ver,
tuber, uber, and cadaver,
piper, Iter, and papaver.
(g) Feminine are compes, teges,
merces, merges, qules, seges,
though their Cases have increase ;
with the Neuters reckon aes.
sea, marble, heart
tree
wJietstone, dowry
withy, maple, stripe, spring
hump, udder, carcase
pepper, journey, poppy
fetter, mat
fee, sheaf, rest, corn
copper
Rule 2. — Third-Nouns Feminine we class
ending is, x, aus, and as,
s to consonant appended,
es in flexion unextended.
Exc. (a) Many Nouns in is we find
to the Masculine assigned :
amnis, axis, caulis, collls,
clunis, crinis, fascis, follis,
fustls, ignis, orbis, ensls,
panis, piscis, postis, mensis,
torris, unguis, and canalis,
vectls, vermis, and natalls,
sanguis, pulvis, ciicumis,
lapis, casses, Manes, glis.
(6) Chiefly Masculine we find,
sometimes Feminine declined,
callis, sentis, funis, finis,
and in poets torquis, cinis.
(c) Masculine are most in ex :
Feminine are forfex, lex,
nex, supellex : Common, pumex,
imbrex, obex, sllex, rumex.
river, axle, stalk, hill
hind-leg, Jiair, bundle, bellows
bludgeon, fire, orb, sword
bread, fish, post, month
stake, nail, canal
lever, worm, birtJiday
blood, dust, cucumber
stone, nets, ghosts, dormouse
path, thorn, rope, end
necklace, cinder
sliears, law
death, furniture, pumice
tile, bolt, flint, sorrel
• As mS15s. melody, 6p5s, epic poem.
224
APPENDIX IV.
(d) Add to Masculines in ix,
fornix, phoenix, and calix.
(e) Masculine are adamas,
elephas, mas, gigas, as :
vas (vadis) Masculine is known,
vas (vasls) is a Neuter Noun.
arch, — , cup
adamant
elephant, male, giant, as
surety
vessel
(/) Masculine are fons and mons, fountain, mountain
chalybs.hydrops.gryps, andpons, iron, dropsy, griffin, bridge
rudens, torrens, dens, and cliens, cable, torrent, tooth, client
fractions of the as, as triens. four ounces
Add to Masculines tridens, trident
oriens, and occidens, east, west
bidens (fork) : but bidens (sheep),
with the Feminines we keep.
(g) Masculine are found in es
verres and acinaces.
Bule 3.— Third-Nouns Neuter end a,
ar, ur, us, c, I, n, and t.
Exc. (a) Masculine are found in ur
furfur, turtur, vultur, fur.
(b) Feminine in us a few
keep, as virtus, the long u :
servitus, juventus, salus,
senectus, tellus, incus, palus.
(c) Also pecus (pecudis)
Feminine in Gender is.
(d) Masculine appear in us
lepus (leporis) and mus.
(e) Masculines in Z are mugil,
consul, sal, and sol, with pugil.
(/) Masculine are ren and splen,
pecten, delphin, attagen.
(g) Feminine are found in on
Gorgon, sindon, halcyon.
Decl. 4 (U-Stems).
Rule. — Masculines end in us : a few
boar, scimetar
bran, turtle-dove, vulture, thief
virtue
slavery, youth, safety
old-age, earth, anvil, marsh
hare, mouse
mullet '
consul, salt, sun, boxer
kidney, spleen
comb, dolphin, grouse
Gorgon, muslin, king-fisher
are Neuter nouns, that end in u.
APPENDIX IV.
225
Exc.
Women and trees are Feminine,
with acus, domiis, and manus,
tribus, Idus, porticiis.
Decl. 5 (E-Stems).
Rule. — Feminine are Fifth in es,
Except meridies and dies.
Exc. Dies in the Singular
Common we define :
But its Plural cases are
always Masculine.
needle, house, hand,
tribe, the Ides, porch
noon, day
List of Prepositions.
With Accusative :
Ante, apud, ad, adversus,
Circum, circa, citra, cis,
Contra, inter, erga, extra,
Infra, intra, juxta, oh,
Penes, pone, post, and praetor,
With Ablative :
A, a\ absque, coram, de,
Palam, clam, cum, ex, and e,
Sine, tenus, pro, and prae :
Prope, propter, per, secundum,
Supra, versus, ultra, trans ;
Add super, subter, sub and in,
When 'motion' 'tis, not 'state]
they mean.
Add super, subter. sub and in.
When ' state,' not ' motion,' 'tis they
mean.
INDEX I.
SUBJECTS.
[TJie reference is to Sections.]
ABB
ANA
Abbreviations, App. II.
Ablative Case, definition of, 30 ; uses of,
228 sqq.
Absolute, 237
of Agent, 239, 296, 300
of Association, 233
of Cause, 241
of Comparison, 231
English rendering of, 30 (n. 2)
in -i and -e (3rd decl.), 45, 46 (n. 2) ;
74, n. 2 (Adj.) ; in -ubus (4th decL),
55 (n. 1)
of Instrument, 240
Locative, 246
of Manner, 236
of Measure, 244
of Origin, 230
of Place where, 268; whence, 270,
271, 274
of Price, 245
of Quality, 234
of Respect, 235
of the Road by which, 275
of Separation, 229
of Space, 282
of Time, 276, 277, 279, 280
with contentus, diguus (indignus),
fretus, opus est, usus est, 243
with fruor, fungor, potior, utor,
vescor, 242 ; dignor, 243
Abstract Substantives, 27
Accent, 9
Accusative Case, definition of, 30; uses
of, 203 sqq.
Adverbial, 213
Cognate, 212
double, 206, 208, 298
in exclamations, 209 (n.)
of Extent, 278, 281-3
in -im (3rd decl.), 45 (nn.) ; in -is or
-es (pi.), 45-^7, 49 (n. 1)
with Infinitive, 207, 414
of Nearer Object, 204 sqq., 215
of Neuter Adjectives and Pronouns,
as Adverbs, 213 (n. 2)
after Passive Verbs, 210, 296
Of Place whither, 211, 269, 371,
27?
Accusative Case —
with Prepositions, 285, 287
of Respect, 213
Active Voice, definition of, 108
Adjectival Clauses, 410, 450 sqq.
Adjectives —
used adverbially, 308
Agreement of, 193
Comparative, 310
Comparison of, 76 sqq. ; irregular, 88
Declension of, 70 sqq.
Definition of, 25
taking Genitive or Dative, 218 (n.)
Numeral, 88 sqq.
used as Substantives, 304-6
Superlative, 307, 309, 310 (n.)
Adonius (versus), 482
Advantage, Dative of, 221
Adverbial Clauses, 410, 421 sqq.
Adverbs —
of Affirmation, 170
of Cause, 166
Comparison of, 85 sqq.
of Degree, 165
of Doubt, 170
Formation of, 163
of Limitation, 170
of Manner, 164
of Negation, 170
Numeral, 88, 90
of Order, 169
of Place, 167
of Question, 170
of Time, 168
use of, 395-398
Adversative Conjunction?, 177
Affirmation, Adverbs of, 170
Age : how expressed, 278 (n.2) ; Genitive
of, 25ti
Agent, Ablative of, 239, 296, 300 ; Dative
of, 222, 381
Agnomen, App. n.
Agreement (the Four Concords), 192 sqc.
Alcaic Stanza, 483
Allegoria, App. III.
Alphabet, the Latin, 2
Anacoluthon, App. III.
Anacrusis, definition of, 481 (n.)
Q2
228
INDEX I.
ANA
Analytic languages, meaning of, 24 (n. 1)
Anapaest, 474, 479
Anastrophe, App. in.
Answers : Affirmative, 408 ; Negative, 409
Antecedent, 195, 330 sqq.
Antithesis, App. III.
Aorist, Greek : no corresponding separate
tense in Latin, 105 (n.)
Apocope, 16
Apodosis, 437 ; in Oratio Obliqua.., 443
Aposiopesis, App. m.
Apostrophe, App. III.
Apposition, 191, 184, 197
Arabic numerals, 90
Aryan family of languages, 1
Assimilation, vowel change by, 13 ; con-
sonant change by, 20
Association, Ablative of, 233
Asyndeton, App. III.
Attraction, 196, 224 (n.), 332, App. in.
Attributive Genitive, 249
Author, Genitive of, 250
Base (in verse), definition of, 481
Caesura, 476, 477,479,482,483; Hephthem-
imeral, Trihemimeral, Penthemimeral,
477,478
Calendar, Latin, App. II.
Capacity (liquid and dry), Roman mea-
sures of, App. II.
Cardinal Numerals, 88 sqq., 311
Case, definition of, 30
Case-endings, table of, 32
Cases, definition of the, 30
Causal Clauses, 424 sqq. ; with qui, 454
Causal Conjunctions, 177, 178
Cause, Ablative of, 241 ; Adverbs of, 1 66
Character, definition of, 24 ; of Noun
Stem, 32, 33 ; of Verb Stem, 111
Climax, App. III.
Cognate Accusative, 212
Cognomen, App. II.
Collective Noun, 27 ; as Subject, 199
Common Gender, 31 (n. 3), App. IV.
Comparative Adjectives, 77, 310; Con-
junctions, 177, 178
Comparative Clauses, 449
Comparison, Ablative of, 231
Comparison of Adjectives, 76 sqq. ; irregu-
lar, 80 sqq.
Comparison of Adverbs, 85 ; irregular, 86,
87
Compensation, vowel lengthening due to,
17
Complement, 186, 187, 189
Composite Subject, 198 ; notes on, 199
Compounded Words, App. I.
Compound Numbers, order of, 89 ; Pro-
nouns, 100, 322 sqq.
Compound Sentence, the, 410 sqq.
Concessive Clauses, 444 sqq.
Concessive Conjunctions, 178
Concessive Conjunctive, 357
Conclusive Conjunctions, 177
DEN
Concords, rules of the four, 192 sqq. notes
on, 196, 197
Conditional Clauses, 437 sqq. ; conversion
of Apodosis and Protasis in Oratio
Obliqua, 443
Conditional Conjunctions, 178
Conditional Conjunctive, 355
Concrete Substantives, 27
Conjugations of Verbs : system by which
they are arranged. Ill, 112 ; Paradigms,
115-124. 133-139
Conjunctions, definition of, 25 ; uses of,
399-401 ; Co-ordinative and Subordina-
tive, 176 sqq., 400, 421-449
Conjunctive Mood, definition of, 106 ; uses
of, 351-363
Connective Conjunctions, 177
Consecutive Clauses, Adverbial, 421 sqq. ;
with Relative Pronouns, 452
Consecutive Conjunctions, 178
Consonant Change, 18-23
Consonants, 6, 7 ; table of, 7
Consonant Stems : Adjectives, 75 ; Greek
Nouns, 69 ; Substantives, 32, 36, 38-43 ;
Verbs, 111, 112, 118, 122 (Paradigm),
154, 159 (Table of Perfects)
Consonant Substantives, Syllabus of, 37
Contraction, vowel change by, 14
Contractions in some Verb-forms, 113
Co-ordinate Sentences, 402, 403
Co-ordinative Conjunctions, 176, 177, 400
Copulative Verbs, Syntax of, 187, 188, 201
Correlative Pronouns and Adverbs, 102,
333-335 ; Conjunctions, 179
Dactyl, 474, 477, 481, 482, 483 ; Dactylic
Hexameter, 476, 477 ; Pentameter, 478
Dative Case, definition of, 30; uses of,
214 sqq.
with Adjectives, 218
of Advantage, 221
with Adverbs, 219
of the Agent, 222
double, 224 (n.)
English rendering of, 30 (n. 1)
Ethic, 223
after a Personal Passive, 222 (».)
of Person interested, 225
of Place towards which, 227
of the Possessor, 224
of Purpose, 220
of Remoter Object, 215 sqq.
with Substantives, 219
Declension, definition of, 28 ; of Substan-
tives, 32 sqq. ; of Greek nouns, 67-69 ; of
Adjectives, 70-75; of Numerals, 89; of
Pronouns, 92 sqq.
Defective Substantives, 59 sqq. ; Verbs,
142 sqq.
Definition, Genitive of, 248
Definitive Pronouns, 95, 320, 321
Degree, Adverbs of, 165
Deliberative Conjunctive, 358, 407
Demonstrative Pronouns, 94, 102, 318,
319
Dentals, Dental-Spirant, 6, 36, 37, 39
INDEX /.
229
DEP
Dependent (Subjunctive) Conjunctive, 353
Deponent Verbs, definition of, 109 ; Para-
digms of, 124, 125
Derivation of Verbs from the three Tense-
Stems, 147
Derived Words, App. I.
Desiderative Verbs, 132
Dialysis, 476
Dimeter, 475 ; Iambic, 480
Diphthongs, 5
Dissimilation, vowel change by, 13 ; con-
sonant change by, 20
Distich : Elegiac, 478 ; Iambic, 480
Distributive numerals, 88, 90, 313 ; Pro-
nouns, 102, 325, 326
Doubt, Adverbs of, 170
Dry measure, Roman, App. II.
Ecthlipsis, 474
Elegiac Distich, 478
Elision (Synaloepha), 474, 483
Ellipsis, A~pp. 111.
Euallage, App. III.
English language, origin of the, 1
Enuntiatio Obliqua, 413
Epicene nouns, meaning of, 31 (n. Z)
Epistolary uses, 343
Ethic Dative, 223
Factitive Verbs, Syntax of, 187, 207, 367,
414 (6)
Figures of Speech (Syntax and Rhetoric),
App. III.
Final Clauses, 423 ; with qui, 453
Final Conjunctions, 178
Final syllables, rules for the quantity of,
473
Finite Verb, definition of, 103 ; agreement
of, 192
Flexion 24, 26
Foot, definition of, 474
Fractions, Roman methods of expressing,
App. II.
Frequentative Verbs, definition of, 131
Future Perfect Tense, 342 ; Future Simple,
341 ; as a courteous Imperative, 350 («.)
Gender, rules of, 31 ; in 1st decl., 34 ;
2nd decl., 35 ; 3rd decl., 37, 51-54 ; 4th
decl., 55 ; 5th decl., 57 ; memorial lines
on, App. IV.
Genders, different, in a Composite Subject,
198 (3, 4)
Genitive Case, definition of, 30 ; uses of,
247 sqq.
Attributive, 249
of Author, 250
of Definition, 248
of the Gerund, 376, 379 (n. 1)
of Number and Age, 256
Objective, 261 tqq.
Partitive, 258-260
Possessive, 254
of Quality, 255
IND
Genitive Case —
Subjective, 261
4 understood ' in a Possessive Pronoun,
264 (n.)
of (indefinite) Value, 257
with Verbs aud Adjectives of accus-
ing, condemning, &c., 252 ; imply-
ing want and fulness, 253 ; of
remembering, forgetting, &c., 265 ;
of refraining, &c., 267
with Verbs of pitying, 266
= 'it is the part, &c., of,' 251
Gerund, definition of, 107; uses of, 274-378,
381, 382, 394
Gerundive, definition of, 107 ; Periphrastic
use of, 114 ; Syntax, 379-381, 38i, 384
Greek Nouns, declension of, 67 sqq.
Gutturals, 6, 36, 37, 38
Hendiadys, App. III.
Hephthemimeral, 477
Heroic Measure, 475, 477
Hexameter, 475 ; Dactylic, 476, 477
Hiatus, 474
Historic Conjunctive in Conditional
Clauses, 437, 439 (.6)
Historic cum, 435
Historic Infinitive, 201 (n.), 372 ; Sequence
of, 411 (n.)
Historic Perfect, use of, 339 ; Sequence of.
411 (n.), 422 (n. 2)
Historic Present, 337, 338 ; with dum,
430; with dum in Oratio Obliqua, 467
(n. 2) ; with cum-Clause, 435 ; Sequence
of, 411 (n.)
Historic Sequence, 411
Historic Tenses, definition of, 105 ; Se-
quence of, 411, 422 (n. 2), 435, 437
Hortative Conjunctive, 360
Hypallage, App. III.
Hyperbaton, App. III.
Hyperbole, App. III.
Hypermeter, 477, 482, 483
Hysteron-proteron, App. III.
Iambus, 474, 481; Iambic Dimeter, 480;
Distich, 480 ; Trimeter (Senarius), 479
Imperative Mood, definition of, 106 ; uses
of, 346 sqq.
Imperfect Indicative Tense, 340 ; Con-
junctive, in Indirect Commands aud
Questions, in Oratio Obliqua, 461, 462
Impersonal Verbs, definition of, 143 ; list
of the principal, 144-146; Syntax of,
288-295
Inceptive Verbs, definition of, 130, 149 (V.)
Indefinite Pronouns, 99, 102 ; Syntax of,
322-324
Independent (Pure) Conjunctive, 352,
354 tqq.
Indeterminate Verbs, 190, 369
Indicative, definition of, 106, 344 ; uses of,
345, 403, 416, 425-431, 433, 434, 438, 440,
445, 446, 448, 450, 452 (c;, 455, 469
230
INDEX 1.
IND
Indirect Command, Request, or Pro-
hibition : with ut or ne and Conjunctive,
413, 417 tqg. : in Oratio Obliqua, 461, 462
Indirect Question, 420 ; in Oratio Obliqua,
462, 463
Indirect Statement : Accus. with Infin.,
414, 415 (n.) ; ut with Conjunctive, 415 ;
quod with Indie., 416 ; in Oratio Obliqua,
459
Infinite, Verb, definition of, 103, 364
Infinitive, definition of, 107 ; Prolative,
190; nses of, 183, 365-373, 394; Tenses
of, 412 ; Accusative with, 207, 414 ; in
Oratio Obliqua, 459
Instrumental Ablative, 238 tqq.
Instrumental Case, the, 30 (n. 3), 238
Interjections, definition of, 25, 180 ; uses
of, 404
Interrogatio Obliqua, 413
Interrogative Conjunctions, 177 ; Pro-
nouns, 98, 100, 102, 327
Intransitive Verbs, definition of, 110 ;
with Accusative, 210 ; with Cognate
Accusative, 212 ; with Dative, 217, 220 ;
impersonal in Passive, 299-302
Inverse cum, 434
Ironia, App. III.
Irregular comparison of Adjectives, 80
sqq. ; of Adverbs, 86, 87
Irregular Verbs, 134 tqq.
Jussive Conjunctive, 361-363
Labials, 6, 36, 37, 40; Labial-Spirant,
Labio-Dental Spirant, 6
Latin Alphabet, the, 2
Latin language, the, 1
Laws of sound, 3 tqg.
Length, Roman measures of, App. II.
Limitation, Adverbs of, 170
Liquid measure, Roman, App. II.
Liquids (sounds), 6, 36, 37, 42
Litotes, App. III.
Locative Case, 30 (n. 3), 34 (n. 2), 35 (n. 2),
49 (n. 3), 56, 67 (n. 2), 246, 271, 27J,
274 (n.)
Manner, Ablative of, 236 ; Adverbs of, 164
Measure of difference, Ablative of, 244
Measures, Latin, App. II.
Metaphora, App. III.
Metathesis, consonant change by, 21
Metonymia, App. III.
Metre, the laws of, 474 ; definition and
kinds of metre, 475
Mobilia, 31 (n. 2)
Money, Roman, App. II.
Monosyllables, rule for the quantity of,
472
Moods, definition of, 106 ; uses of, 344 tqq.
Mora (in Prosody), 474
Multiplicatives (numerals), 90 (n. 1)
Mutes, 6, 36
PEB
Nasals, 6, 36, 37, 43
Nasalised Verb Stems, 149 (IV.)
Nearer Object, Accusative of, 204 tqq., 215,
368
Negation, Adverbs of, 170, 396-398
Nomen, Cognomen, Agnomen, App. II.
Nominative Case, definition of, 30 ; use of,
200,201
Number, Genitive of, 256
Numbers, the, 29
Numeral Adjectives, 88, 89 ; uses of,
311-313 ; quam omitted before Nume-
rals, 314
Numerals, table of, 90
Objective Genitive, 92 (n.), 261 tqq.
Old forms in Verbs, 113
Optative use of Conjunctive, 359, 438 (n. 2)
Oratio Obliqua, Tenses of the Infinitive
in, 412 ; conversion of Apodosis and
Protasis in, 443 ; uses of, 458 ; State-
ment in, 459 ; Commands in, 461 ; Ques-
tions in 2nd person in, 462 ; Questions in
1st or 3rd person in, 463 ; changes of Pro-
nouns in, 464-466 ; Relative Clauses in,
467 (n. 1); dum(irWte) with Indicative
in, 467 (n. 2) ; Suboblique construction,
467; Virtual Oratio Obliqua, 469:
Narrative in Oratio Obliqua, 470
Order, Adverbs of, 169
Ordinal Numerals, 88, 90 ; use of, 312
Origin, Ablative of, 230
Oxymoron, App. III.
Paradigms of Verbs, 115-124, 133-141
Parenthesis, App. III.
Paronomasia, App. III.
Participles, definition of, 107 ; of Deponent
Verbs used passively, 126 ; Perfect, with
Active meaning, 129 ; Dative of Agent
with, 222 ; Genitive after, 262 ; uses of,
389-394 ; compared like Adjectives, 79,
390
Particles, 25, 162 tqq.
Partitive Genitive, 92 (n.), 258-260
Parts of Speech, 25
Passive Construction, 296 tqq.
Passive Voice, definition of, 108
Patronymics, Greek, 67
Pentameter, 475 ; Dactylic, 478
Penthemimer, Penthemimeral, 477, 478
Perfects and Supines, table of, 152 tqq.
Perfect Stem, Tenses derived from, 147
(II.)
Perfect Tense, 105 ; formation of the, 150 ;
use of Perfect Indicative, 339 ; Perfect
Conjunctive, 347, 356, 396, 422 (n. 2);
Sequence of, 411, 422 (n. 2)
Periphrasis, App. III.
Periphrastic Conjugation, 114
Person and Number in Verbs, 104
Personal Passives with Dative, 222 (n.) ;
with Infinitive, 370
Personal suffixes of Verbs, 104, 148
INDEX 1.
231
rn
Personal Pronouns, 92 ; use of, 264, 315
Petitio Obliqua, 413
Place, Adverbs of, 167
Place to which (Accus.), 211; (Dative),
227 ; where, whither, whence, 268-275
Pleonasmus, App. III.
Polyptoton, App. III.
Polysyndeton, App. III.
Possessive Genitive, 254
Possessive Pronouns, 93 ; use of, 264, 317,
318
Possessor, Dative of, 224
Potential Conjunctive, 356
Predicate, 182, 184 tqq.
Prefix, definition of, 24 (n. 2)
Prepositions, definition of, 25, 171 ; with
Ablative, 173, 286 ; with Ablative or
Accusative, 174, 287; with Accusative,
172; with Genitive (tenus), 286; used
only in Verb compounds, 175
Present-Stem formation, 149 ; Tenses de-
rived from, 147 (I.)
Present Tense, 105, 336; Historic, 337,
338, 430, 435 ; Sequence of, 411
Price, Ablative of, 245
Primary Perfect, 105, 339, 411, 422 (n. 2)
Primary Sequence, 411
Primary Tenses, 105, 411
Prohibition in the 2nd person, 347, 348, 350
Prolative Infinitive, definition of, 190 ;
use of, 369-370, 373
Pronouns, 25, 91 sgg., 315 sqq^ 464-466
Pronominal Adjectives, 101, 328, 329;
suffixes, 96, 100 (n.), 101 (n.)
Proper names, 27
Proportionals (numerals), 90 (n. 2)
Prosody, 471 tqq.
Prosopopoeia, App. III.
Protasis, 437 ; in Oratio Obliqua, 443
Pure Ablative, 229 sqq.
Purpose, Dative of, 226
Quality, Ablative of, 234 ; Genitive of, 255
Quantity, 8, 17 ; general rules of, 471 ; of
monosyllables, 472 ; of final syllables,
473
Quasi-Passive Verbs, 128, 303
Question, Adverbs of, 170
Questions : Alternative, 406 ; Delibera-
tive, 358, 407 ; Indirect, 420 ; Indignant,
415 (n.); Single, 405; Indirect in
Oratio Obliqua, 462, 463
Reduplication in Verb-Stems, 149 (II.),
150
Reflexive Pronoun, 92 ; use of, 316 ; how
used for a Reciprocal, 316 (n. 1); in
Oratio Obliqua, 465
Relative Particles, 410, 455
Relative Pronoun, declension of, 97 ;
Agreement of, 195 ; uses of, 330-382 ;
in Co-ordinate Sentences, 403 ; in Adjec-
tival Clauses, 410, 460 sqq. ; limiting
use, 456 ; connecting use, 457
Remoter Object, Dative of, 216-220
TEN
Respect, Ablative of, 235 ; Accusative of.
213
Rhythm, definition of, 476 ; of the Alcaic
Stanza, 483
Roman Numerals, 90
Root, definition of 24
Sapphic Stanza, 482
Scansion, 476
Semi-Consonants, 6
Semi-Deponent Verbs, 127
Senarius (versus), 479
Sentence, Compound, 410 tgq. ; Simple,
182 sqq. ; Co-ordinate, 402, 403
Separation, Ablative of, 229
Separative Conjunctions, 177 .
Sequence of Tenses, 411 ; of infinitive in
Oratio Obliqua, 412 ; in Consecutive
Clauses, 422 (n. 2)
Sibilant, 6
Simile, App. III.
Simple Sentence, the, 182 sqq.
Sociative Case, the old, 232
Space of measurement, 283 ; over which,
281 ; which lies between, 282
Spirants, 6, 36, 37, 41
Spondee, 474, 477, 478, 479
Stem, definition of, 24
Stem formation in Verbs, 148-151
Strong Formation of the Perfect, 150
Strophic Metres, 481 sqq.
Subject^ 182 sqq., 192, 200; composite, 198>
199
Subjective Genitive, 261
Subjunctive use of Conjunctive, 353
Suboblique Construction, 467
Subordinate Clauses, 410 ; in Oratio Ob.
liqua, 467 sqq.
Subordinative Conjunctions, 178, 401, 421
Iff.
Substantival Clauses, 410, 413-420
Substantives, Declension of, 32 sqq. ; De.
fective and Variable, 59 tqq. ; in Apposi-
tion, 194, 197 ; as Composite Subject, 198
Suffix, definition of, 24 (n. 2)
Superficial measures, Roman, App. II.
Superlative Adjectives, 78 sqq., 307, 309,
310
Supine Stem, formation of, 151
Supines, definition of, 107 ; uses of, 385 ;
table of, 152 ; in -um, 386, 387, 394 ; in
-u, 388
Syllables, 8, 23 ; Quantity of, 472, 473
Syllepsis, App. III.
Synaloepha (Elision), 474, 483
Synecdoche, App. III.
Synesis, App. III.
Syntax, definition of, 181
Synthetic languages, meaning of, 24 (n.l)
Temporal Clauses, 427-438
Temporal Conjunctions, 178
Tense-Stems, derivation from the three,
147 ; formation of, 148 sqq.
INDEX I.
TEN
Tenses, 105 ; uses of, 336 sqq. ; Sequence
of, 411 ; of Infinitive in Oratio Obiiqua,
412
Tetrameter, 475
Thematic Verbs, 148, 149
Time, Adverbs of, 168
Time at which, 276 ; during which, 278 ;
how long after, 280 ; ago, 279 ; before,
280 ; within which, 277
Time, Roman, App. H.
Tmesis, App. III.
Transitive Verbs, definition of, 110 ; Syn-
tax of, 204, 215, 220
Tribrach, 474, 479, 481
Tribemimeral, 477
Trimeter, 475 ; Iambic, 479
Trochee, 474, 477, 481, 482, 483
Cniversal Relatives. 102, 450 (n)
Unthematic Verbs, 148
Value (indefinite), Genitive of, 257
Variable Substantives, 59 sqq.
Variant Verb-forms, 113, 118 (n.)
Verbal Substantives, Objective Genitive
with, 262
Verbs (Accidence), 103 tqq.
Verbs (Syntax)—
with Ablative, 229, 230, 233, 241-245
with Accusative, 204-210, 212, 213
Agreement of, 192
ZED
Verbs (Syntax)—
with Composite Subject, 198, 199
Copulative, 187, 188, 196, 201, 251, 297,
369 (n.)
with Dative, 215-217, 219 (n.)
ease with Dative, 224
Factitive, 187, 206 ; Passive Construc-
tion, 297
Finite, 184, 200
with Genitive, 250, 252, 253, 257, 265-
267
Impersonal, Case Construction of, 288
sqq.
Indeterminate, 190, 369
Infinite, 364, 394
Infinitive, the, 365 -373, 394
Intransitive, 205, 209, 212, 216, 220 ;
Passive Construction, 299 sqq.
Passives with Accusative, 210
as Predicate, 184 sqq.
Verse, definition of, 473
Vocative Case, definition of, 30 ; uses of,
202
Voices of Verbs, 108
Vowels, 3 ; quantity of, 4
Vowel Change, 10-17
Weak Formation of the Perfect, 150
Weights, Roman, App. II.
Zeugma, App. III.
INDEX II.
LATIN WORDS.
\T1ie reference is to Sections.]
A, AB
a, ab, abs, absque, 173, 270,
286 ; ab in compounds, 220
abdo, 154
aboleo, 153
abolesco, 154
absum, 115
abuudo, 233
accedit (irnpers.), 146
accidit (impers.), 1*6
accipiter, 4'J
acer, 73
Acliilleus (Achilles), 69
acies, 57
aciuaces, 54
acuo, acui, 150, 154
acus, 55
ad, 172, 285 ; in compounds,
220
addo, 154, 41G
adeo (Adv.), 164, 421
adnuo, 154
adolesco, 154
adsum, 115
adultus (Adj.), 154 (n.)
adversus, adversum, 172, 285
aedes, 61
aeger, 71 : aegre, 165
Aeneas, 67
aequalis, 73
aequor, 37, 42, 51
aequus,82(n. 1) ; aeque, 164,
449 ; aequum est, 345
aer, 69
aes, 37, 53
aetas, 37, 39
aether, 69
Aetna, 31
affinis, 218 (».)
affligo, 154
ager, 35
ago, 24, 149, 150, 154 ; age,
agite, 142 (n.)
agricola, 34 (n. 3)
aio, 142
alacer, 73
ales, 31 (n. 3)
algeo, 153
alias (Adv.), 168
alibi, 167
alicubi, alicunde, aliqua,
aliquando, aliquantus,
aliquis, aliquo, aliquot,
aliquotiens, alteruter,
102 ; aliquanto, 244
alienus, 218 (n.)
aliter, 164
alius, 101, 329
Allia, 31
alo, 149. 154
ALP
CAN
Alpes, 31
arr, 46
alter, 101, 102, 312 (».), 328 ;
as (assis), 41 (n. I), 52
altero, 244
asper, 71
alteruter, 101 («.), 102
assentior, 161
alvus, 35
at (ast), at enim, atqui.
amans (amantior, aniantis-
attamen, 177
simus), 74, 79
ater, 71
amarier (=amari), 113
Athos, 68
ambi, 175
atque, 177
ambio, 138, 175
Atrides, 67, 69
arnbo, 89
amicio, amixi (amicui), 155
attinet (impers.), 146, 293
auceps, 37, 40
aniicus, 35 ; (Noun), 305
audax, 74, 76 ; audacter, 85
amnis, 45, 54
audeo, 127, 158
amo, amavi, 116, 120, 150,
audio, 119, 123 ; audibo, 113 ;
152 ; aiuasti, 113
= am called, 187
amor, 42
augeo, 153
amphora, 34 (n. 3)
aut, autem, 177, 400 (nn. 2,
amplector, 159
. 3) ; aut . . . aut, 400 (n. 1)
amplius, 311
auxilium (auxilia), 61
an, 177, 405, 406
ave (have), avete, 142
anas, 37
avis, 44
ango, 154
axis, 54
animal, 48
auimi (pendere animi,
anxius aniini), 246 (n.)
annus, 35
auser, 37
ante (Adv.), 168, 280 ;
Prep., 172, 280, 285, 395 ;
in compounds, 220
antequam, 178, 395, 431
baccar, 47 (n.)
Bacchanalia, 60
baculus (baculum), 63
bellum, 35 ; belli (Loc.),
35 («. 2)
bene, 86 ; in compounds, 220
beneflc-us, -entior, -entissi-
mus 81
aiitiquus, 82 («.)
apage, 142
aperio, 155
benevol-us, -entior, -entis-
simus, 81
bibo, 149 (II.), 154
apis, 49
apiscor, aptus sum, 159
bideus, 54
bini (pi.), 313 («. 2)
blandior, 161
appareo, 187
apparet (impers.), 146
bonus, 71, 80 ; boni (Noun),
304
uppellor, 187
aptus, 218 (n.)
apud, 172, 285
Boreas, 67
bos, 50
aquila, 31 (n. 3), 34
Arbela, 31
Bucollcou (Gen.), 68
arbiter, urbitra, 31 (n. 2)
arbor, 31 (n. 1), 51 ; arbos,
cadaver. 51
arboses, 41 (//. 2)
cado (cecidi), 150, 154
arceo, 153
caedo, 154
arcesso, 154
caelebs, 75
arctus, 35
calcar, 48
arcus, 55 (n. 1)
caleo, calesco, 149
ardeo, arsurus, 153 t
calix, 52
argentum, 59
callis, 54
arguo, 154
campester, 72
anna, 60
canalis, 45, 54
armiger, 35
cancer, 35
ars, 47
Canephoroe, 68
artus, 55 (n. 1), 60
cam's, 31 (n. 3), 37, 49
234
INDEX II,
CAN
COM
DUB
cano, 154
comperio, 155
decet, dedecet (impers.),
canto, 131
compes, 51
144, 289, 345
capesso, 154
compesco, 154
declarer, 187
capio, 133, 149, 154
compingo, 150 (II.)
dedo, 154
caput, 37, 39, 53
compos, 75
degener, 75
carbasus (carbasa), 35, 61
concessu, 65
deinceps, deinde, 169
career, 42
conclave, 47
delecto, 217 ; delectat (im-
cardo, 62
concors, 74
pers.), 146
carmen, 43
concutio, 154
deleo, 153
caro (carnis), 37, 51
condo, 154
Delos, 68
carpo, 154
confiteor, 126
Delphi, 31, 60
Carthagina (Loc.), 60 (».)
cougelasco, 149
demo, 154
carus, 71
congruo, 154
demum, 168
casses, 54
coniveo, 153
denique, 169
castrum (castra), 61
conjunx, 37
dens, 46, 54
caulis, 54
couor, 190, 369
deses, 75
causa, 263, 379 (n. 1)
censors, 74 (n. 1)
deaina, 369 ; desinit (im-
cautes, 45
constauter, 85
pers.), 295
caveo, 150, 153 ; cave with
constat (impers.), 146
desum, 115
Conjunctive, 350 ; cave
consul, 37, 42
deterior, deterrimus, 84 (n.)
ne,cave ut, 417 (n. 3)
consulo, 154
deus, dea, 31 (n. 2), 34 («.4),
cedo, cessi, 149 (I.), 154
conteutus, 243
35
cedo, cedite (cette), 142
coutiugit (iinpers.), 146
dexter, 71 (.n.); dexterior,
celeber, 73
contra, 172, 285
dexterrimus, 84 (n.) ;
celer, 73 (n.), 78 ; celeriter,
convenit (impers.), 146, 290
dextra (Noun), 305
164
copia (copiae), 61
dico, 149, 154 ; die (dice), 118
celo, 208
coquo, 154
Dido, 69
-cendo, 154
cor, 37, 51
dies, 57 ; die (Loc.), 246
ceiio, 129
coram, 173, 286
difflcilis, 78
ceu»eo, 153
Corcyrae (Loc.) 246
digne, 85 ; dignus, 243
cera (cerae), 61
Corioli, 31
digiior, 243
Ceres, 37
cornu, 55
dili&o, 154
cerno, 149 (IV. «), 154
corpus, 41
dimidio, 244
certe, 170
cos, 61
dirigo, 175
certo, 219 («.)
crebro, 168
disco (didici), 149 (V. a.\.
ceterum (Couj.), 177 ; cetera
credo, 154, 219 («.)
150, 154, 369
(Adv. Ace.), 213 (».);
creor, 187
dissimilis, 78
with partitive force, 307
crepo, 152
dissolve, 175
(«.)
cresco, 149 (V.), 154
diu, jam diu, quam diu,
ceu, 177, 178
crimiue (on the charge of),
tarn diu, 65, 87, 168
cieo, 153
252 (n.)
dives (dis), divitior (di-
Cimon, 09
crinis, 54
tior), divitissituus (ditis-
ciugo, 154 ; cingor, 210
cms, 37, 41
simus), 75, 80 («. 2)
cinis, 37
cubile, 47
divide, 154
circa, circiter, circum, 172,
cube, 152
divitiae, 60
285
cudo, 150, 154
do (dare), 148, 152; with
cis, citra, 172, 285
cum (icten), 102, 178, 433
Gerundive, 384
citerior, citimus (citra), 84
sqq. ; (since), 426 ; con-
doceo, 153, 208, 369
civis, 31 (n. 3), 44
cessive, 448 (n. 2)
domiuus, 35
ci vitas. 49
cum (irith), 173, 286
domo, domui (Verb), 150,
clam, 173, 286
cunae, 60
152
elanuo. 154
cupio, 133, 369, 417 (n. 2)
domus, 56, 271 ; domi
claudo, 149 (1.;, 154
cupressus, 55 (*. 2)
(Loc.), 246, 274 (n.)
clavis, 44 (n. 1)
cur, 170
donee, 178, 429, 431, 432
cluuis, 54
euro (with Gerundive),
dono, 233 (n.)
coactu, 65
384 ; cura ut, 350
dos, 49, 51
coepi, eoaptus, 142, 369 ;
curro, 154
drachma, 34 (n. 3)
coepit (impers.), 295
custos, 37
dubius, 71, 82
cognosce, 154
Cybele, 67
duco, 149 (1.), 150, 154 ; due,
rollis, 54
118
eolo, cultum, 151, 164
dapis, 37, 64
dulcis, 388
color (coles'), 41 (n. 2)
de, 173, 270, 286 ; in com-
dum, dummodo, 178, 429-
colus, 35, 55 (n. 2)
pounds, 220
432, 442; with Hist.
comes, 31 (n. 3)
debeo, 190, 345, 369 ; debet
1-res., 338, 430, 467 (n. 2]
commiseror, 266 («.)
(impers.), 295
duo, 89
commuuis, 2tl8 (n.)
December, 73
duplex, 74 ; duplo, 244
t oiuo, 154
decemvir, 35 (n. I)
duresco, 149 (V. b)
INDEX II.
235
DUB
FAB
1MB
durus, 71, 76
fari, 142
fundo, fudi, 150, 154
dux, 31 (n. 3), 37, 38, 52
fas, 52, 66, 388
fungor, 159, 242
fascis, 54
fun is, 54
fasti, 60
fur, 37
e, ex, 173, 270, 286
fateor, 157
furfur, 53
e4(Adv.), 102, 167
fatiscor, 169
fustis, 54
ebur, 37, 42
faveo, fari, 150. 153
ecce, 180, 404
fax, 37
echo, 51
febris, 44 (n. 1)
Gadibus (Loc.), 50 (n.)
ecquis, 100
felix, 74
gaudeo, 127, 158
etlo (edidi), 154
fendo, 149 (I.), 154
gemo, 154 ; gemisco, 149
edo(esse), 140, 148,150
fere, ferine, 165
gener, 35
egenus, 81
feriae, 60
genius, 35 (n. 1)
egeo (with Gen.), 253
fero, 136, 148 ; feror, 187
genus, 41
ego. 92
ferveo, ferbui (fervi),
genu, 55
egregius, 82 (?/.)
153
gero, gessi, 150, 154
eheu, heu, ei, 180, 404
fides, 57
gigno, 149 (11.), 154
Eleates, 67
fido, fisus sum, 127, 149 (I.),
glacies, 57
elephas (elephantus), 69
160, 219 (n.)
glis, 49
emo, emi, emptum, 150, 151,
figo, 154
gracilis, 78
154
films, filia, 31 (n. 2), 34 (n.
gradior, 133, 159
en, 180, 404
4V 35
gradus, 55
enim, enimvero, etenim,
flndo, 149 (IV. 6.), 154
gratia (gratiae), 61 ; gratis,
177, 400 (n. 3)
fingo, 154
263, 379 (n. 1)
ensis, 54
finis, 54 ; fines, 61
gratulor, 219 (n.) ; gratulor
eo, ire, 137, 148, 211
fio, 128, 141, 187
. . . cum, 426 (n. 1)
eo, eodem, 102, 167,259 (n.)
flagito, 208
grex, 37, 38
Epirotes(-ota), 67
flecto, 149 (III.), 150, 154
grus, 50, 53
equester, 73
fleo, 153
guberno, 217
equidem, 170
fiocci, 257
erga, 172, 285
flos, 41
ergo, 177
fluo, 154
hac (Adv.), hie, hinc, hue,
esurio, 132
fodio, 133, 154
167
et, et . . . et, 179 ; etiam,
follis, 54
haereo, 150, 153
170, 177; etiamsi, etsi,
fons, 54
baud, haudquaquam,! 70,396
178,444,445
forceps, 40
haurio, hausi, 150, 155
evado ( = turn out\ 187
fore (futurum esse) ut, 412
Helene, 67
Evander (-dros), 68
(«)
heres, 31 (n. 3)
evenit (impers.), 146, 290
forfex, 52
heros, 69
eventum (eventus), 62
fornix, 37, 52
heu, 180, 404
excello, 154
forsan, forsitan, 170
hie (Pron.), 94; hie, ille
exemplar, 47
fortasse, forte, 170
(in contrast), 319; hoc,
existo (= turn out), 187
fortiter, 85
244
expedit (impers.), 146. 290
foveo, fovi, 150, 153
hiemps, 37, 43
expergiscor, 159
fraugc, 149 (IV. 6), 154
homo, 37, 43
experior, 161
frater, 42, 49
honor (honos), 37, 41
exstinguo, 154
fraus, 53
hostilis, 73
exterior, extremus, erti-
fremo, 154
humilis, 78
mus (extra), 84
frenum (pi. freni, frena),
humus, 35, 59 ; humi (Loc.),
extra, 172, 285
63
35 (n. 2)
exulo, 128
fretus, 243
exuo, 154 ; eruor, 210
frico, frictum (fricatum),
ibi, ibidem, 102, 167
152
ico, 150, 154
frigeo, 153
idem, 95, 321
faber, 35 (n. 3)
frigo, 154
identidem, 168
facies, 57
Irons (frondis), 46 ; (fron-
ideo, idcirco, 166, 423, 425
facilis, facile, 73, 78, 388;
tis), 46
(n.)
(Adv.), 85, 164
fructus, 55
Idus, 55 ; Idibus (Loc.),
facio, T33, 141, 149 (VI.),
frugi, 80 ; frugis, 37, 64
246
154 ; fac, 118 ; fac ut, fac
frugifer, 71
igitur. 177
ne, 350
fruor, 159, 242
ignis. 44, 54
fallit (impers.), 146
fallo, 149 (IV.), 154
fugio, 133, 150, 154 ; fuge
(withlnfin.), 350
Ilion, 31, 68
iliac, illic, illinc, illuc, 167
falso, 164
fugit (impers.), 146
ille, 94, 319
fauiilia, familias, 34 (n. 1),
fulcio, fultum, 155
illustris, 73
50
fulgeo, fulsi, 150, 153
imber, 44
far, 37, 47 (n.)
t ulgurat (impers.), 145
imbuo, 154
236
INDEX II.
IMI
JUN
MIS
imitor, 126
jungo, 149 (IV. 6), 154
lugeo, 153
immemor, 265
Juppiter, 50
lugubris, 73
ininio, 409 (?»)
juro, 129
lima, 34
impedimentum (impedi-
jus, 41 ; jusjurandum, 50 ;
luo, -lutum, 154
uieuta), 61
jure ( = by right), 236 (n )
lux, 37
impingo, 150
jussu, 65
lynx, 69
impleo (with Gen.), 253
justitia, 59
in, 174, 287 ; in compounds,
juvat (impers.), 146
220
juvenis, 37, 49; junior, 80
magister, 35
iucesso, 154
juvo, juvi, juvatum, 150,
magnopere, 86, 165 ; magis,
incus, 37
152, 217
maxinie, 86
mde, 102, 167 ; indidem,
juxta, 172, 285
magnus, 71 ; major, maxi-
167
mus, 80 ; majores (Nouu),
indigeo (with Gen.), 253
iudignus, 243
indulgeo, 153
Kalendae, 60 ; Kalendis
(Loc.), 246
305 ; magni, 257
male, 86 ; in compounds,
220 ; maledic-us, -eutior.
iudtio, 154 ; induor, 210
-entissimus, 81
iudutiae, CO
labor, lapsus sum, 159
malo, 139, 148, 369
iufans, 54
lac, 37, 53
mains, 71, 80
inferior, inflmus, imus (in-
lacer, 71
manceps, 52
fra), 84
lacesso, 154
maudo, 154
infitias ire, 211 («.)
lacio <,obsol.), 133
maneo, mausi, 150, 15£, 187
infra, 84, 172, 285
lacus, 55 (n. 1) •
manes, 54, 60
iiigens, 74
laedo, 154, 217
manus, 5ft
iujuria ( = wrong/ulJy), 336
lampas, 69
aiare, 47 («.)
(«•)
lapis, 37, 39
margo, 52
injussu, 65
lar, 53
marmor, 51
inquam, 142 ; inquit, 460
largior, 161
ruas, 49
insidiae, 60
Latium, 31
mater, 37, 49; mater-
iustar, 66
latro, 43
faniilias, 34 (n. 1), 50
insum, 115
laus, 37, 53 ; laudi vertere
materia (and materies), 57
iusuper, 169.
alicui", 226 (n.)
(ii. 1)
intellego, 154
lavo, lavatum (lautum,
me (Ueflexive with ipse).
inter, 172, 285 ; in com-
lotum), lavaturus, 150,
316 («. 2)
pounds, 220 ; interdiu, 65 ;
151, 152
medeor, 157
interdum, 168
interest (impers.), 146, 291
lego, legi, 150, 154 ; legor,
187
mel, 37 ; mella (pi.), 59 (».)
melior, 80 ; melius, 86 ;
interior, intimus t,intra), 84
lente, 164
meaus est, 345
intersum, 115
leo, 37, 43
meuiini, 142, 265 ; memento
intra, 84, 172, 285
lepus, 31 (n. 3), 53
(with liifin. or Conjiuic.),
intus, 87
Lethe, 31
350
ipse, 95, 320
lex, 52
memor, 74 (n. 1), 265
irascor, 159, 219 (n.)
liber, 71,229 ; liberi (Noun),
meusa, 34
iri (Impers. with Supine),
35,60
mensis, 4 9, 54
387, 412
liber, 35
nierces, 37, 51
Iris, 69
libet (impers.), 144, 290
mereor, 126, 157
is, 94, 102, 319 («.), 334 ; id
liceo, 128 ; liceor, 157
merges, 51
(Adv. Accus.), 213 (n.) ;
licet (impers.), 144, 290,
rnergo, mersi, 150, 154
ejus (Possessive), 318 ;
345,417 (n. 1), 444, 447
meridies, 57
eo,244
ligo (Noun), 52
metior, 161
iste, 94, 319 (n.)
lino, levi (livi), 149 (IV. a).
nieto, 154
istic, 96 (n.)
154
metuo, 154
ita, 164; itaque, 177
linquo, 154
meus, 93, £64
item, 177
linter. 44
mico, micui (micavi), 152
iter, 50, 51
liquet, 144, 290
mille, milia, 89, 311
iterum, 168
liquor (Verb), 159
miles, 37, 39
itidem, 164
lis, 49
Mileti (Loc.), 35 (n. 2)
littera (litterae), 61
-miniscor, 159
locus (pi. loci, loca), 63
minor (Verb), 219
jacio, 133, 154
lougum est, 345
minor, minimus, 80 ; mi-
jam, jamdiu, 168, 338
loquor, 159
nime, 86 ; minoris. mi-
jecur, 50
lotos, 68
nimi, 257 ; minus, 314
jocus (pi. joci, joca), 63
luceo, 153
minuo, 154
jtibar, 37, 47(n.)
lucescit, 145
misceo, 153
jubeo, 153, 217, 417 (n. 1)
lucifer, 35
miser, 71
judex, 31 (n. 3), 37, 38
ludo, 154
misereor, miseretur, miseri-
augerurn ([juger]is), 62
ludus (ludi), 61
tum est, 144 (n.), 266;
INDEX II.
23?
MIS
NEQ
PEC
miseritus(misertus) sum,
nequam, nequior, nequissi-
olim, 168
157 ; miseresco, 266 ;
mus, 80
omnis, 73
miseror, 266 («.)
nequeo, 138, 369
omnino, 170
miseret (impers.), V4, 288
nescio quis, 322
opem, 61, 64 ; opes, 61 ;
mitto, misi, 150, 1^4, 416 ;
neuter, 101
opis, 37
mitte (with Infin.) 350
neutiquam, 170
opera (pi. operae), 61
moderor, 217
nex, 37, 52
operio, 155
modo (Adv.). 168, 170, 442 ;
niger, 71, 78
opperior, 161
(Conj.), 178
nigresco, 130
oportet, 144, 294, 345, 417
moenia, 60
uihil, nihilum, nil, 66 ;
(n. 1).
moles, 45
nihili, 257; nihilo, 244;
opto, 369
molior, 161
nihil non, non nihil, 297
optimus, 80 ; optime, 86
molo, 154
nimis, nimium, 165 ; niinio,
opus, 37, 41, 66 : opus est,
moneo, 117, 121
244
243 (n).
mons, 46, 54
ningit (ninguit), 145, 154
orator, 42
mordeo, momordi, 150, 153
nisi, ni, 178, 437 sqq- '> nigi
orbis, 54
more majorum, 236 (;i. )
forte, nisi vero, 441
ordior, 161
morior, moriturus, 133, 159
(n.2)
ordo, 52
moveo. 153
nitor, nisus (nixus) sum,
oriens, 64
mox, 168
159
orior, 161
mugil, 37, 53
nir, 37, 59 (n.)
oro, 208
mulceo, 153
noctu, 65
Orpheus, 69
mulgeo, 153
nolo, 139, 148, 417 (n. 1),
os (oris), 51 ; os (ossis), 41
multus, 80 ; multum, 86,
369
(«• 1), 51
165, 213 <n.); multo, 244
nomen, 37, 43 ; nomine ( =
municeps, 52
on the ground of), 252 (n.)
mus, 49, 53
non, 170, 396, 409 ; nonne,
paciscor, 159
myrtus, 55 (n. 2)
177, 405; nondum, 168;
paenitet, 144, 288 ; paeni-
non modo, non modo non,
tendus, 144 (n).
398 ; non quod, non quia,
palam, 173, 286
nam, namque, 177
426 (n. 2)
pallesco, 130
nauciscor, nactus (nanctus)
nosco, 449 (V.), 154
paluster, 73
sum, 159
uos, noster, 92, 93 ; nostri
pando, pausum (passum),
narror (as impers.), 370 («.)
(Obj. Gen.), nostrum
154
iiii?cor, 159
(Partit. Geu.), 92 («.),
paugo, ponxi (pegi), 150,
natu, ti5 ; natu major (mi-
nos, ucster(=ego, meus),
154
nor), iiatu niaximus (mi-
315 (n.)
panis, 54
niums), 80, 235 («.)
November, 73
papaver, 51
natus (oi age), 278 («. 2)
uovi, 142
papilio, 52
nauci, 257
nox, 49
par, 74, 218 (n.)
nauta, 67
nubes, 45
paratus (paratior, paratissi-
navis, 44 (n. 1)
uubo, nupsi, 150, 154, 219
mus),79
Neapolis, 44 («. 1)
(n.)
parco, 154; parce (with
ne(Adv.), 170, 396 ; (Conj.),
nugae, 60
Infin.), 350
178 ; (in prohibitions),
uullus, 101
pareiis, 31 (n. 3), 49, 54
347, 348, 396
uum, 177,405,406
paries, 37
ne . . . quidem, 398
nummus, 35 (n. 3)
pario, 133, 154
ne (in dependent clauses),
uumquam, 1W
Paris, 69
417 sgq., 423 sqq., 448 (n. 2)
nunc, 168
pariter, 170
-ne (Interrog.), necne,
nuutior (as impers.), 370
partim, 170
nonne, 177, 406
(n.)
partior, 125
neque, nee, neve, neu, 177-
nuper, 87, 168
partus, 85 (n. 1)
179, 397 (n.)
nusquam, 167
paruiu, 165
nee quisquam, nee quirl-
parvus, 71, 80; parvi,
quam, nee ullus, nee un-
257
quam, nee usquam, 397
ob, 172, 285 ; in compounds,
pasco, 149 (V.), 154
(«. 1)
220 ; ob earn reni tit, 423
passer, 31 (n. 3)
necesse est, 345
obliviscor, 265
pater, 42, 49 ; paterfamilias,
nectar, 47 (n. )
obses, 37
34 (n. 1), 50
necto, 160 (III.), 164
obsolesco, 154
patior, 133, 159
nedum, 423 (n. 2)
obsiun, 116
paullum, 86, 165 ; paullo,
uefas, 66, 388
occidens, 54
244
neglego, 154
occulo, 154
pauper, 75
nemo, 101 (n. 2) ; nemo uon,
ocior, ocissimus, 83 ; ocius,
paveo, 153
non nemo, 397
ocissirne, 86
pax, 37 ; pace tua, 236
neo, 153
October, 73
(n.)
nepos, neptis, 31 (n. 2), 37
odi, osus sum, 142
pectcn, 53
238
INDEX //.,
PEC
pecto, 154
pecua (pecoris), 62 ; (pecu-
dis), 37, 53, 62
pedester, 73
pejor, pessimus, 80; pes-
sime, 86
pelagus, 35
Pelion, 31, 68
pello, 149 (IV.), 154
penates, 60
pendeo, 153 ; pendere animi,
246 (n.)
pendo, 150, 154
penes, 172, 285
per, 172, 285
percello, 149 (IV.), 154
perdo, 154
pergo, 154, 369
perinde, 164, 449 (n.)
Persa, 67
Perseus, 69
pertaesum est, 144 (». 2)
pertinet (impers.), 146, 293
pes, 37, 39
pessum ire, 211 (n.)
peto, 149 (I.), 208 (n.)
Philippis (Loc.), 35 (n. 2)
piget, pigitum est, 144, 288
pileus (pileum), 63
pingo, 149, 150, 154
pinsp, pinsui (pinsi), 154
piscis, 54
placet (impers.), 146
plane, 170
Plato, 69
plaudo, 150, 154
plebs, plebia (or plebes,
plebei), 45 («.), 57 (n. 2),
62
plecto, 149 (III.)
plenus (with Gen.), 253
-pleo, 153
plerumque, 170
plico, -plicavi (-plicui), -pli-
catiim (-plicitum), 152
pluit, 145
plumiger, 71
plus, 80, 86, 314 ; pluris, 257 ;
plurimus, 80 ; plurimum,
86 ; plurimi, 257
poema, poesis, 69 ; poeta, 67
polliceor, 126
polluceo, 153
pone, 172, 285
pouo, 154
Pontus, 31
porticus, 55
portus, 55 (n. 1)
posco, 15i
possum, 135, 190, 348, 369 ;
potest (impers.), 295
post, 84, 87, 168, 172, 280,
285, 395 ; in compounds,
220 ; postquam, 178, 395,
428
posterior, postremus (post),
84 ; postremo, 87, 169
P08
postis, 54
potens, 135
potior, 133, 161, 242 ; with
(Jen., 253
potius, potissimum, 165
prae, 173, 286 ; in com-
pounds, 220
praeditus, 233
praes, 37, 53
praesum, 115
praeter, 172, 285
praeterea, 169
praetereo, 416
prandeo, 129, 150, 153
precem, 64
prehendo, 154
premo, 154
primo, primum (Adv.), 169
princeps, 37, 40, 52
prior, primus (prae), 84 ;
prius, 87
priusquam, 178, 431, 432
pro (Prep.), 173, 286 ; pro,
proh (Iiiterj.), 180, 404
procul, 229
prodo, 154
profecto (Adv.), 170
proficiscor, 159
prohibeo, with quominus
or ne, 419 (n. 2)
proinde, 164, 449 (n.)
promo, 154
prope, 87, 172, 285 ; propior,
proximus, 84
proprius, 218 (n.)
propter, 172, 285
propterea, 166 ; propterea
ut, 423 ; propterea quod
(quia, quoniamj, 425 (n.)
prosper, 71
prosum, 115
provid-us, -entior, -entissi-
mus, 81
psallo, 154
pudet, 144, 288 ; puditum
est, pudendus, 144 (n.)
puer, 35
pugio, 52
pugno, 219 (n.)
pulcher, 71
pungo, pupugi, 150, 154
punior (punio), 125 («.),
161
puppis, 44 (n. 1)
puter, 73
putor, 187
qua, 102 ; (Adv.), 167
quacumque, 102
quaero, 154, 208
quaesu, quaesumus, 142
qualis, qualiscumque, 102,
335, 45u (ri.)
quam, 102, 164, 170, 177,
231 («.), 310, 335 ; quam-
quam, quamvis, 178, 444,
REC
446, 447, 448 (n. 1) ;
quamobrem (Adv.), 170,
(Conj.), 177
quando, 102, 168, 178, 425,
428; quandocumque, 102;
quandoquidem, 178, 42t.
quantus, quantuscumque,
102, 335, 450 (n.) ; quanti,
257 ; quanto, 244 ; quan-
tum (Adv.), 165
quapropter, 177
quare, 170, 177, 455
quasi (quam si), 177, 178,
449
quatenus, 178, 425
quatio, 133, 154
-que, 177
quemadmodum, 170, 177
queo, 138, 190, 369
queror, 169
quia, 178, 425
qui, 97-99, 102, 195, 330
sqq., 403, 410 ; quo, 244 ;
quicumque, 100, 102, 450
(n.) ; quidam, quilibet,
quivis, 100, 322, 324 ;
quid (Adv. Ace us.), 213
(n.) ; qui in Adjectival
Clauses, 450 sqq.
quidem, 170, 398, 400 (n. 3)
quies, 37, 51, 62
quiesco, 154
quin, 178, 419, 422, 452 (n.)
quippe, 178, 454 (n. 1)
quis, 98, 99, J02, 322 ; quis-
nani, quispiain, 100 ;
quisquam, ItX), 323 ; quis-
que, 100, 325 ; quisquis,
100, 450 (w.)
quo, 102, 1«7, 244, 453, 454
(«. 2), 455 ; quccirca, Hi;
quomodo, 170, 177, 455 ;
quoque, 177 ; quominus,
178, 418; quo terrarum,
259 (n.)
quoad, 178, 429, 431, 432
quod, 99, 178, 416, 425, 426
(«• 2)
quondam, 168
quouiam, 178, 425
quot, quotcumque, 102, 335;
quotiens, quotienscum-
que, 102, 168, 178, 428
quum (see cum)
radix, 37, 38
rado, 154
rapio, 133, 154
raro, 168
rastrum (pi. rastri, rastra),
63
ratio, 37, 4S, 52 ; ratione
( =on principle), 236 (n.)
recens, 74 (n. 1)
receptui canere, 226 (n.)
recordor, 265
INDEX II.
239
BED
SEC
TEN
reddo, 154
secundum (Prep.), 172, 285
splen, 53
redeo, 137, 175
securis, 44 (n. 1)
spondeo, spopondi, 150, 153
refero, 175
secus, 164
sponte, 65
refert (impers.), 146, 292
sed, 177, 400 (n. 2)
spuo, 154
regina, 31 (n. -2), 34
sedeo, sedi, 150, 153
statuo, 154, 369
regio, 52
sedes, 49
Stella, 34
regnum, 35
sedile, 47
sterno, 18, 149 (IV. a), 1(H
rego, 118. 122, 154, 217
seges, 37, 39, 51
sternuo, 154
remex, 37
semel, 168
(stips), 37
reminiscor, 265
seme nt is, 44 (n. 1)
stirps, 46
ren, 49, 53
semper, 168
sto, steti, 148, 150, 152
reor, 157
senatus, 55
strenuus, 82 (;i.)
repo, 154
senex, 49, 50 ; senior, 80, 310
strepo, 154
reperio, 155
seiuio, 155
strideo, stridi, 150, 153
requies, 51, 62
sentis, 54
stringo, 154
res, 57 ; respublica, 58
sepelio, 155
strix, 37
restat (impers.), 146
September, 73
struo, struxi, 150, 154
restis, 44 (n. 1)
sequor, 159
suadeo, 153, 219 (n.)
rete, 47
series, 57
sub, 174, 287; in com-
rettuli, 150
sero, serui, 154
pounds, 220
retundo, 154
serpens, 31 («. 3)
subdo, 154
xex, 31 (n. 2), 37, 38
servus, 35
subsum, 115
rideo, 153
seu, 177, 178 ; sen . . . seu,
subter, 174, 287
Rhodope, 31
179, 441 (n. 3)
suesco, 154
rodo, 154
si, si modo, sin (si ne), si
sugo, 154
rogatu, 65
Don, siquidem, si tail-
sum, 104, 114, 115, 186, 196,
rogito, 131
turn, 178 ; si (in Condi-
224
rogo, 208
tional Clauses), 437 s<j<j. ;
suo (Verb), 154
Roma, Romae (Loc.), 34
si non, 441 (n. 2) ; sive,
super, 174, 287 ; in com-
(«. 2), 246
177 ; sive . . . sive, 179,
pounds, 220
ruber, 71
441 (n. 3)
supallex, 50, 52
rudens, 54
sic, 164,179, 421,449 (n.) ;
superi, 35 (n. 3 )
rudo, 149 (I.)
sicut, sicuti, 177
superior, supremus, summus
rutnpo, 149 (IV. 6), 154
sicubi, siuuude, si qua, si
(supra), 84
ruo, rutum (ruitum), 154
quaudo, si quis, si quo, 102
superstes, 75, 218 (n.)
rupes, 45
sido, 150, 154
supersum, 115
rus, 59 (n.), 271 ; ruri, rure
silentia (pL), 59 (n.)
suppetias ire, 211 (n.)
(lac.), 50 (n.)
similis, 78, 218 («.) ; simili-
supra, 172, 285
ter, 164, 449 («.)
surgo, 154
sacer, 71, 218 (n.)
simplex, 74
sus, 50, 53
sacerdos, 31 (n. 3)
simul, 168, 170, 428 ; simul
suus, 93, 317
-saepe, 87, 108
ac, 178
saepio, 155
sine, 173, 286
taedet, 144, 288
sal, 37, 53 ; sales, 61
singuli, 313 (n. 1)
talentum, 35 (n. 3)
Milio, 155
sinister, sinisterior, 84 (71.)
talis, 102 ; talis quails, 335
saluber, 73
sino, 149 (IV. a), 154
tarn, 102, 164, 421 ; tarn . . .
salve, salvete, 142
sisto, 149 (II.), 154
quam. 335
Samos, 68
sit is, 44 (n. 1)
tamen, 177, 444 sqi].
saucio, 155
socer, socrus, 31 (n. 2), 35
tametsi, 178, 444, 445
sane, 170
socius, 35 (n. 3)
tamquam, 177, 178, 449
•sapiens, 74, 304 ; sapienter,
sol, 37, 42, 53
tango, 154
164
soleo, 127, 158, 190, 369;
tantus, 102 ; tantum, 165,
sapio, 133, 154
solet (impers.), 295
170, 178 ; tanti, 257 ; tan-
sarcio, 155
solus, lol ; solum, 170
to, 244 ; tantus quantus.
satis, 165 ; in compounds,
solutus, 229
335 ; tantum abest ut, 42:2
220 ; satius est, 345
solvo, 154
Tarentum, 31
•satur, 71
sono, 152
te (Reflexive with ipse),
scalpo, 154
Soracte, 31
316 (n. 2)
scando. scandi. 150, 154
sorbeo, 153
teges, 51
acindo, 149 (IV. b), 154
soror, 37
tego, 154
•scio, 155, 369
sortior, 161
teruno, tempsi, 149 (IV. «)•
scorpios, 68
sospes, 75
150, 154
scribo, scrlpsi, 150, 154
spar go, 154
tempero, 217
sculpo, sculpsi, 150, 154
species, 57
tempus, 37, 41
se, 92, 316, 464, 465
specio (obsol.), 133
tendo, tentum (tensum), 154
secedo, 175
sperno, 149 (IV. a), 154
tenebrae, 60
seco, 152
spes, 57
teueo, 153
240
INDEX II.
TEN
ULI
VUL
tener, 71, 78
Ulixeus (ITlixes), 69 vendo, 154
tenus, 173, 286
ullus, 101, 323 v
emu, veni, 150, 155
tergeo, 153
ultra, 172, 285 ; ultro, 164 v
euor, veuatus sum, 125
tergum (tergus), 62
ulterior, ultimus (ultra), 84 veuuin ire, 211 (n.) '
tero, 154
umquam, 168 v
tr, 37, 51, 59
tertio (Adv.), 169 ; tertius,
unde, 102, 167, 410, 455 ; verber, 51
312 (n.)
undecimique, uiidique, verbum, 35
texc, 154
102 -v
ereor, 125
Thales, 69
unguis, 54 \
ermis, 5-1
Tiberis, 44 (n. 1)
unguo (uugo), 149, 154 verres, 54
tibicen, 53
unus, 89, 311 ; (for primus), verro, verri, 150, 154
tigris, 31 (». 3), 69 (n.)
312 ; urn (pi.), 313 («. 1); vero, 170, 177, 400 (n. 3) ;
tiugo, 154
unusquisque, 100
verum, 177; verumtumeu
tonat (impers.), 145
urbs, 4b
177
toudeo, 153
urgeo, 153 ^
ersus, versum, 172, 285
touo, 152
. uro, ussi, 150, 154 verto, verti, 15u, 15-i
torqueo, tortum, 151, 153
usquam, 167 veru, 55
torquis, 54
usque, 167, 168 verum, vera (Noun), 306
torrens, 54
usus est, 243 (n.) 1
rervex, 37
torreo, 153
ut (Adv.), 170 ; (Conj.), veseor, 159, 242
torris, 54
177-9, 415, 417, 421, 423, vesperascit (impers.), 145
tot, 102, 421 ; tot quot, 335 ;
428, 448 (n. 2) ; adeo . . . vesper, -i, 5u, 62 ; vespera,
totiens, 102, 168
ut, ita . . . ut, sic ...
-ae, 62 ; reaper!, vu:-per
j
totus, 101
ut, ut . . . ita, 179
(Loc.), 50 («.)
trabs (or trabes), 45 (n.)
ut ue, 178, 417, 423 1
rester, 93 ; vestri (Ob;
trade, 154 ; with Gerundive,
ut non, 178, 421
Gen.), vestrum (Partit.
384 ; trader (as impers.),
utpote, 454 («. 1)
Gen.), 92 (n.)
370 (n.)
utsi, 178, 44« T
reto, vetui (vetavi), 152
;
traho, 154
utut, 178, 444, 446
with quomiuus or ue,
trans, 172, 285
uter (Noun), 44
419 (n, V)
tremo, 154
uter, 101, iu2, 327 ; uterque, T
retus, 75, SO
tres, 89
100, 3^6 ; utercumque, 102 vicem, 64
tribunal, 47
utor, 124, 125, 242 victor, victrix, 31 (n. 2)
tribuo, 154
utrum ... an, 177, 406 video, 150, 153 ; videor,
tribus, 55
187
tristis, 73, 76 ; tristior, 77
vincio, 155
triumvir, 35 (n. 1)
vaco, 219 (n.)
mco, 150, 154
trudo, 154
vado, (iu)vasi, (in)vasum,
ir, 35
tu, 92
154
iigo, 43
tuber, 51
vae, 180, 404
irtus, 37, 39
tueor, 157
valde, 165
irus, 35
turn, tune, 102, 168, 433
valeo, vale, valete, 142 («.)
is (.Noun), 44 (n. 2)
tundo, tusuin (tunsum),
valles (or -is), 45 (n. 1)
iso (Verb;, 150, 154
154
vannus, 35
itio vertere alicui, 226 (n.
)
turgeo, 153
vapulo, 128
ivo, vixi, 150, 154
turpis, 388
vas (vadis), 37, 52 ; (vasis),
ix, 165
turris, 44 (n. 1)
37, 41 (n. I), 52
ocor, 187
turtur, 53
vates, 31 (n. 3), 49
olo, volui, 139, 148, 368
f
tussis, 44 (n. 1)
-ve, 177
417 («. 1)
tuto, 85
vectis, 54
olucer, 73
tuus, 93
veho, vexi, 149, 150, 154
olucris, 49
vel, 177 ; vel . . . vel, 179,
olvo, 164
400 (n. 1)
omo, 154
fiber (Noun), 51
vello, veili (vulsum), 154
os, 92
ubi, 102, 167, 168, 178, 410,
velox, 74
oveo, 153
428, 455 ; ubique, ubi-
velut, veluti. velut si, 177,
ox, 37, 38
cumquc, 102; ubi gen-
178, 449
ulgus; 35
tium, 259 (n.)
vemeuter, 164
ulpes (or -is), 45 (n.)
ulciscor, 159
veneo, 128 vultur, 37, 53
Spottiswoode <k Co. Ltd., Printers, Xetc-street Square, London.
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